Glossary

Inclusive education systems are most effectively supported by a complementary combination of prevention, intervention and compensation policy actions. The goal of inclusive education systems is supported by policy actions that are aimed at:

• Prevention – policy initiatives that aim to avoid educational exclusion and longer-term social exclusion, before these issues emerge (for example, anti-discrimination legislation promoting a rights approach, avoidance of disabling policies that lead to gaps in provision, lack of qualifications, etc.).
• Intervention – policy initiatives that support the effective implementation of inclusive education (for example, the existence of clear policies leading to high-quality flexible support systems for mainstream education).
• Compensation – policy initiatives that address the inability of legislation and/or provision to support meaningful inclusive education for all learners (for example, separate educational programmes or provision, support for failing schools, second-chance educational programmes) (European Agency, 2018, p. 19).

‘Partial integration’ means that some learners are partially educated in a mainstream class (for subjects mastered through mainstream programmes) and partially educated in a special class (for subjects mastered through intensified teaching or special programmes). Here, the learner belongs to a mainstream class, with the special class offering regular sessions for some form of special programme (European Agency, 2019b, p. 22).

(See also ‘Integration’)
 

UNICEF describes participation as:

… an ongoing process of children’s expression and active involvement in decision-making at different levels in matters that concern them, requiring information-sharing and dialogue between children/adolescents and adults based on mutual respect, and … [requiring] that full consideration of their views be given, taking into account the child’s age and maturity (2013, p. 7).

Like educational inclusion, participation is often seen as a human rights issue and an essential component of social justice (European Agency, 2011).

Participation is about the quality of the learning experience from a learner perspective, and therefore it must incorporate the views of the learners themselves. … It relates to school-level process factors which facilitate or hinder a sense of belonging and a sense of autonomy to the learner, as well as a sense of a meaningful participation with peers of the same age. As such, participation mainly refers to processes at the meso (school or classroom) and micro (individual learner) levels (Ramberg and Watkins, 2020, p. 90).

(See also ‘Meaningful participation’)

A process that includes stakeholders in the early stages of design. This involvement of stakeholders and end-users together allows the design to be more open and lends itself to user-centred design (adapted from Rosenzweig, 2015).

Pedagogy encompasses:

… teachers’ attitudes, beliefs and ideas, as well as their knowledge and understanding of the teaching and learning process and the diversity of learners – all of which impact on their practice in the classroom. This includes for example:

• communication and social interaction (with and between learners);
• visual methods to support learning;
• organising tasks to engage learners;
• monitoring and using feedback for further planning;
• formative and summative assessment of learners (involving learners themselves).

Pedagogy ‘acknowledges the importance of relationships’ and ‘sees teachers working alongside learners with concern for their holistic development and well-being’ (European Agency, 2015e, p. 10).

In the context of education co-operation at European Union level, peer counselling is an instrument/process that:

… brings together professional peers from a small number of national administrations to provide external advice to a country in the process of a policy development. It is intended to go beyond information-sharing and provide a forum for finding solutions to national challenges in a participatory workshop (European Commission, 2018d, p. 1).

In the context of education co-operation at European Union level, peer learning is:

… a method of observing both positive and negative examples of policy reforms adopted in other countries in order to draw lessons from them. Its strength lies in the contextualisation of policies, broadness and flexibility of discussion themes, qualitative nature of information and low levels of politicisation based on mutual trust between the Member States (European Commission, 2018d, p. 1).

A process of tailoring education to a learner’s current situation, characteristics and needs to help achieve the best possible progress and outcomes. Personalised learning can include personalising the curriculum, courses, learning materials and activities, and different forms of learning support. Each learner is provided with education that is tailored to their individual characteristics and needs. They learn in a way that is most suitable for them, resulting in different learning experiences for each learner (Adapted from Seel, 2012 in UNESCO-IBE, Glossary of Curriculum Terminology).

Personalisation involves working closely with parents and families to address any support requirements holistically. Personalisation is not ‘individualisation of learning’, which is essentially a teacher-driven action. Learner participation and involvement in decision-making is crucial to distinguishing between the two approaches. Personalisation requires learners to reflect in an interactive process – co-creating learning with the teacher but, over time, taking increasing responsibility and managing their own learning (within the framework of the country’s curriculum and standards) (European Agency, 2012b).

Policy refers to a stated course or principle of action that is either adopted or proposed in order to meet goals, aims and objectives. It is written in official documents to direct the implementation of agreed actions.

Policy and legislation are connected, but distinct. Legislation outlines the requirements and policy then details the framework for ensuring that the requirements are put into action. The implementation of actions then needs to be guided by supporting policy documents (rules, guidelines, guidance materials, etc.).

A policy framework brings together policies/policy elements that set out the requirements and processes for reaching policy goals in line with national/organisational values and principles. A policy framework outlines roles and responsibilities for policy development, stakeholder engagement, implementation, dissemination, monitoring/evaluation, governance and operational processes (European Agency, 2018d, p. 17).

The UNESCO (2009) Policy Guidelines set out policy concerns, policy questions, gaps to be resolved and suggested actions. The suggested actions are the focus of the Inclusive Education in Action project.

A ‘test run’, the results of which will help to influence the shape and delivery of the final policy.

The extent to which one can generalise from the results of any pilot study to a larger class of cases.

Pre-primary education (International Standard Classification of Education – ISCED – 0) is:

… the initial stage of organised instruction … designed primarily to introduce very young children to a school-type environment, i.e. to provide a bridge between the home and a school-based atmosphere. Upon completion of these programmes, children continue their education at level 1 (primary education).

ISCED level 0 programmes are usually school-based or otherwise institutionalised for a group of children (e.g. centre-based, community-based, home-based).

Early childhood educational development (ISCED level 010) has educational content designed for younger children (in the age range of 0 to 2 years). Pre-primary education (ISCED level 020) is designed for children aged at least 3 years (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2020, p. 275).

Persons who ‘are not able to use the printed books, newspapers, and magazines – including those with dyslexia, motor disabilities or age-related macular degeneration’ (DAISY, 2015b).

Monitoring and accountability mechanisms that take a procedural approach encourage stakeholders to only follow prescribed administrative procedures and bureaucratic rules. Such control mechanisms can be seen as a barrier to, or disincentive for, innovation and school-led development.

A pilot designed to explore the practicalities of implementing a policy in a particular way or by a particular route, assessing what methods of delivery work best or are most cost-effective.

Process-oriented assessment is an assessment that aims to develop pupil learning though change or improvement in their learning environment. The methods associated with this form of assessment are usually pupil-oriented, for example pupil interviews, portfolios, etc.

Professional learning refers to any activity undertaken by education professionals that aims to stimulate their thinking and professional knowledge and to improve their practice, ensuring that it is evidence-informed and up-to-date. Professional learning includes activities that take place throughout an individual’s professional career.

(See also ‘Teacher professional learning’)

A professional learning community refers to collaborations of education stakeholders ‘around clusters of schools involving …. school and community personnel, together with researchers, local area leaders and policy-makers’ (European Agency, 2015e, p. 7).

Professional learning communities may serve two broad purposes:

(1) improving the skills and knowledge of educators through collaborative study, expertise exchange, and professional dialogue, and (2) improving the educational aspirations, achievement, and attainment of students through stronger leadership and teaching. Professional learning communities often function as a form of action research—i.e., as a way to continually question, reevaluate, refine, and improve teaching strategies and knowledge (‘professional learning community’ in the Glossary of Education Reform).

(See also ‘Learning community’)

‘The process of improving or developing, or of getting nearer to achieving or completing something; the process of developing gradually from one stage or state to another’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

To enable learner progress, schools need to:

• understand all learners’ current situations and support them by using information to plan future steps;
• develop the ‘capability to meet learner needs and increase curriculum relevance, helping learners to gain competences’ for future life, studies and employment
• be flexible to ‘adapt pedagogical strategies and provide support’ – to increase ‘access to appropriate learning opportunities’ and develop learners’ knowledge and skills.

‘Schools should be clear about what progress might look like for all learners, particularly when it does not lead to traditional recognition’, e.g. through examinations. Progress may be shown (for example, by learners with more complex support needs) by ‘increased responses, improved communication and social skills, reduced need for support, less reliance on routines, reduction in challenging behaviour, transfer of learning between different situations or increased self-advocacy’ (European Agency, 2015e, pp. 12–13).
 

The term ‘provision’ includes all forms of support that may help the process of participation in education for all learners: curriculum, assessment procedures, forms of pedagogy, organisation and management and resources that contribute to the development of supportive systems that promote inclusive education.