A barrier is ‘a problem, rule or situation that prevents somebody from doing something, or that makes something impossible’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

Disability is often considered to be due to ‘disabling barriers’. These can be addressed by designing enabling, accessible environments.

In education – and during the learning process – there may be many barriers or circumstances that restrict the full participation of learners. Many learners will have different requirements (short and longer term) that may require consideration to enable them to take part in all activities and gain full benefit from the opportunities on offer.

Full and active participation may be affected by negative attitudes and deficit thinking, physical barriers, poor access to communication aids and appropriate information in accessible formats or a lack of confidence and/or training in the skills necessary to take part (European Agency, no date b).

Differentiation is a method of designing and delivering instruction to best reach each learner. Teachers might differentiate content, process, products and/or the learning environment, with the use of on-going assessment and flexible grouping (Tomlinson, 2014). Differentiation in teachers’ practices takes account of learner differences and matches curriculum content and teaching methods to learning styles and learner needs. It may focus on input, task, outcome, output, response, resources or support. Care must be taken, however, that differentiation does not lead to lower expectations and segregation from the mainstream system. It should offer a range of differentiated tasks to everyone in class, giving learners some choice in what they do and how they respond.

Inclusion is both a principle and a process: ‘Inclusion and equity in and through education is the cornerstone of a transformative education agenda […] No education target should be considered met unless met by all’ (World Education Forum, 2015, p. 2).

It can be seen as: ‘A process consisting of actions and practices that embrace diversity and build a sense of belonging, rooted in the belief that every person has value and potential and should be respected’ (UNESCO, 2020a, p. 419).

The term was often associated with disability, but now extends to wider groups as ‘a response to increasingly complex and diverse societies. It treats diversity as an asset which helps prepare individuals for life and active citizenship in increasingly complex, demanding, multi-cultural and integrated societies’ (Soriano, Watkins and Ebersold, 2017, p. 7).

Inclusive assessment refers to assessment that ‘takes into account the needs of all learners, ensuring that they all take part in the assessment procedures and that the learning activities planned as a result are appropriate to each individual’ (Kefallinou and Donnelly, 2016, p. 210). Inclusive assessment is not a new or different set of techniques, but a different way of using assessment to support teaching and learning for all learners.

(See also ‘Universal design for learning’)

‘An education that promotes mutual respect and value for all persons and builds educational environments in which the approach to learning, the institutional culture and the curriculum reflect the value of diversity’ (UNESCO, 2020a, p. 420).

The Agency views inclusive education as ‘a systemic approach to providing high quality education in mainstream schools that effectively meets the academic and social learning needs of all the learners from the school’s local community’ (European Agency, 2015, p. 2).

Inclusive education supposes a real change at both policy and practice levels regarding education. Learners are placed at the centre of a system that needs to be able to recognise, accept and respond to learner diversity. Inclusive education aims to respond to the principles of efficiency, equality and equity, where diversity is perceived as an asset. Learners also need to be prepared to engage in society, to access meaningful citizenship and to acknowledge the values of human rights, freedom, tolerance and non-discrimination (Soriano, Watkins and Ebersold, 2017, p. 6).

‘Written plan setting out a student’s present performance level along with goals and objectives, as well as services and timelines to meet those goals and objectives’ (UNESCO, 2020a, p. 420).

Parents and other professionals/specialists may be involved in developing individual education plans.

Along with the individual education plan, learning support assistants (LSAs) are the most used form of support for learners with disabilities/other additional support needs. They are also called ‘teaching assistants’, ‘special needs assistants’ or ‘paraprofessionals’. Roles, responsibilities, training and qualifications vary across countries, but research now indicates that LSAs should work to support teachers and all learners in class to avoid stigma and reduce possible dependency.

This refers to four main types of services that have traditionally supported learners with disabilities: the educational sector, the health sector, social services and voluntary bodies.

UNICEF describes participation as:

… an ongoing process of children’s expression and active involvement in decision-making at different levels in matters that concern them, requiring information-sharing and dialogue between children/adolescents and adults based on mutual respect, and … [requiring] that full consideration of their views be given, taking into account the child’s age and maturity (2013, p. 7).

Like educational inclusion, participation is often seen as a human rights issue and an essential component of social justice (European Agency, 2011).

Participation is about the quality of the learning experience from a learner perspective, and therefore it must incorporate the views of the learners themselves. … It relates to school-level process factors which facilitate or hinder a sense of belonging and a sense of autonomy to the learner, as well as a sense of a meaningful participation with peers of the same age. As such, participation mainly refers to processes at the meso (school or classroom) and micro (individual learner) levels (Ramberg and Watkins, 2020, p. 90).

(See also ‘Meaningful participation’)

The term ‘provision’ includes all forms of support that may help the process of participation in education for all learners: curriculum, assessment procedures, forms of pedagogy, organisation and management and resources that contribute to the development of supportive systems that promote inclusive education.

Reasonable adjustments are a way to remove barriers to education. Schools adjust policies and practices in education and associated services for learners with disabilities. The duty applies to all staff and is anticipatory (not compensatory). This means that adjustments are in place before learners with particular requirements are present in school. It recognises each learner’s right to attend and the need to remove barriers to participation and learning.

‘Systems of support’ refers to systems that build the capacity of mainstream schools, rather than to the process of distributing additional resources. They help to make mainstream schools more accessible and capable of meeting the requirements of all learners.