Glossary

When a learner does not attend school or class. While absenteeism refers to absences from school ‘for any reason’, truancy refers to unexcused or unjustified absenteeism (UNICEF and UIS, 2016, p. 23) and includes involuntary and voluntary absences. Involuntary absences consider the context of learners’ lives and may be a product of social context. Voluntary absences may be associated with motivational or other factors, such as employment, which can gradually draw a learner out of school. In either case, the learner is deciding not to be in school (European Agency, 2019a).

‘The opportunity or right to use something or to see somebody/something’; ‘Entering or reaching a place’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

Within an educational context, the right to enter educational settings (schools and classes) is important, as well as the ability to use financial, human and technical resources.

Article 9 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities defines ‘accessibility’ as follows:

To enable persons with disabilities to live independently and participate fully in all aspects of life, States Parties shall take appropriate measures to ensure to persons with disabilities access, on an equal basis with others, to the physical environment, to transportation, to information and communications, including information and communications technologies and systems, and to other facilities and services open or provided to the public, both in urban and in rural areas (United Nations, 2006, p. 9).

Accessibility is a right to be ensured in all areas. These include education and the right to appropriate education and active citizenship through access to a flexible curriculum through personalised learning approaches.

‘Can be reached, entered, used, seen’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

Within the i-access project, ‘accessible information’ is understood as information provided in formats which allow every learner to access its content ‘on an equal basis with others’ (United Nations, 2006, p. 9). 

‘Being responsible for your decisions or actions and expected to explain them when you are asked’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

Accountability may be vertical (top down) or horizontal (e.g. school-to-school or peer-to-peer support systems). It may include compliance with regulations, adherence to professional norms and/or be driven by outcomes. The purpose of accountability is widely accepted as one of strengthening the education system (Brill, Grayson, Kuhn and O’Donnell, 2018).

Accountability starts with governments, as primary duty bearers of the right to education … Governments should therefore take steps towards developing credible and efficient regulations with associated sanctions for all education providers, public and private, that ensure non-discrimination and the quality of education … No approach to accountability will be successful without a strong enabling environment that provides actors with adequate resources, capacity and information to fulfil their responsibilities (SDG-Education 2030 Steering Committee, 2018, p. 2).

In addition to academic attainment and other wider learning (e.g. personal, social), achievement may be shown through increasing confidence, using a broader range of learning strategies, more active participation, increased social skills, wider competences, access to further study and employment.

According to the Agency’s Position on Inclusive Education Systems, ‘raised achievement for learners encompasses all forms of personal, social and academic attainments that will be relevant for the individual learner in the short term, while enhancing their life chances in the long term’ (European Agency, 2015a, p. 2).

(See also ‘Attainment’)

Kemmis and McTaggart (1988, p. 5) provide the following definition of ‘action research’, which emphasises its participatory, collaborative and self-reflective nature and firmly locates it as a form of social action orientated towards improvement:

Action research is a form of collective self-reflective enquiry undertaken by participants in social situations in order to improve the rationality and justice of their own social or educational practices, as well as their understanding of these practices and the situations in which these practices are carried out.

The ‘action research’ model has been used for school improvement purposes. It is a form of professional self-study, where teachers intentionally consider their work to collect data, which they then use to make informed decisions about their practice and their learners’ learning (Campbell, 2013). 

One of the principal intentions of action/practitioner research is that teachers raise the quality of their practice by engaging in basic classroom or school-set research, addressing curriculum or other broadly pedagogical issues (Institute of Public Administration/European Commission Structural Reform Support Service, 2017).

Learners, often from an immigrant background, who do not speak the national language and who need additional support to access the curriculum in school and develop resources to fully participate in the life of the local and wider community.

Having power to influence transformational change. In educational environments, learners and families have agency when they are able to initiate discussions, take action and share power, ensuring their voices are given weight in decision-making processes (European Agency, no date a).

Furthermore, ‘active agency’ is when learners or families are able to initiate discussions, take action and have shared power to influence decisions and bring about transformative change (European Agency, 2022a, p. 23).

Alternative / augmentative communication (ACC) refers to extra ways of helping people who find it hard to communicate by speech or writing to communicate more easily. This can include signing and gesture (unaided systems) or books and special computers (aided systems) (International Society for Augmentative and Alternative Communication, cited by UNESCO IITE/European Agency, 2011, p. 101).

Alternative education refers to different recognised forms of educational provision that are arranged by education or other public or private authorities and/or services, for learners who do not attend mainstream and/or special schools/classes for different reasons (European Agency, 2021a, p. 10).

‘Process of defining, selecting, designing, collecting, analysing, interpreting and using information about a student’s achievement and development level in academic, behavioural or social areas’ (UNESCO, 2020a, p. 419).

Assessment adaptation / modification / accommodation refers to an alteration in the way a general assessment is done or test is applied. Assessment accommodation allows learners with special educational needs to show what they know or what they can do by removing the barriers that may be intrinsic in the assessment itself (for example, providing written test questions orally to learners with visual impairments).

(See also ‘Reasonable adjustments’)

‘Assessment that actively involves learners and encourages them to think about the way they learn. It occurs when learners reflect on and regulate and monitor their learning progress. It comprises learner reflection and peer and self-assessment’ (UNESCO-IBE, Glossary of Curriculum Terminology).

Assessment of learner’s progress and achievement, the primary purpose of which is to support and enhance learning by adapting the educational process to meet the learner’s needs. Learners are made aware of their strengths and weaknesses while being provided with adequate support to overcome learning difficulties (UNESCO-IBE, Glossary of Curriculum Terminology).

(See also ‘Formative assessment’)

Assessment of learner’s achievement the primary purpose of which is to provide information about what has been learned at a particular point in time. This process often involves the use of standardized tests or examinations. It is often, though not always, used for the purpose of promotion and/or graduation (UNESCO-IBE, Glossary of Curriculum Terminology).

(See also ‘Summative assessment’)

Equipment, devices, apparatuses, services, systems, processes and environmental modifications used by people with disabilities to overcome social, infrastructural and other barriers to learning independence, safe and easy participation in learning activities, and full participation in society (UNESCO, 2020a, p. 419).

‘Enabling technologies’ is another term for ‘assistive technologies’. However, these focus more on creating opportunity than overcoming a deficit.

Children can be at risk of disadvantage because of their individual circumstances or because they, or their families belong to a group which is disadvantaged in society. These children may include those with disabilities, with mental health problems, in alternative care, at risk of neglect/abuse, undocumented child migrants/asylum seekers, those whose families live in poverty or are socially disadvantaged, those whose families have a migrant and/or second language background, those whose families have limited access to services, Roma and traveller children (European Commission, 2018a).

The highest ISCED level of education an individual has successfully completed. This is usually measured with respect to the highest education programme successfully completed which is typically certified by a recognised qualification. Recognised intermediate qualifications are classified at a lower level than the programme itself (UNESCO/UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2012, p. 79).

(See also ‘Achievement’)

Assessment of learner performance that is as closely related to a real-life situation as possible and is not artificial or contrived. One way to make an assessment more authentic is to have learners choose the particular task they will use to demonstrate what they have learned (Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD) in UNESCO-IBE, Glossary of Curriculum Terminology).

Learning related to real-life or ‘authentic’ situations – the kinds of problems faced by citizens, consumers, or professionals. Advocates complain that what is taught in school has little relationship to anything people do in the world outside of school; efforts to make learning more authentic are intended to overcome that problem. Authentic learning situations require teamwork, problem-solving skills, and the ability to organize and prioritize the tasks needed to complete the project. Learners should know what is expected before beginning their work. Consultation with others, including the teacher or instructor, is encouraged. The goal is to produce a high-quality solution to a real problem, not to see how much the learner can remember (ASCD in UNESCO-IBE, Glossary of Curriculum Terminology).

‘The freedom for a country, a region or an organization to govern itself independently’; ‘The ability to act and make decisions without being controlled by anyone else’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

In education, autonomy may include local-governance autonomy, school autonomy and teacher autonomy (the extent to which teachers can make autonomous decisions about what they teach to learners and how they teach it). Also important are parent autonomy (around curriculum, school performance) and learner autonomy (giving learners control over their own learning process) (adapted from ‘autonomy’ in the Glossary of Education Reform).

Awareness raising campaigns can be defined as organised communication activities which aim to create awareness on particular topics (health, environment, education), behavioural change among the general population and to improve the focus on better outcomes (better health, greater environmental protection, reduced early school leaving). They often take the form of mass media campaigns.

Messages can be conveyed through many different channels, such as mass media (television, radio), social media, public relations, events, talks, demonstrations, tours and leaflets.

Awareness raising campaigns are recognised as the most efficient and effective means of communicating information especially to the general public. Still, not all of them are effective in terms of influencing people’s beliefs and changing their behaviour (Masiulienė, Looney, Aertgeerts and de Greef, no date, p. 4).
 

A barrier is ‘a problem, rule or situation that prevents somebody from doing something, or that makes something impossible’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

Disability is often considered to be due to ‘disabling barriers’. These can be addressed by designing enabling, accessible environments.

In education – and during the learning process – there may be many barriers or circumstances that restrict the full participation of learners. Many learners will have different requirements (short and longer term) that may require consideration to enable them to take part in all activities and gain full benefit from the opportunities on offer.

Full and active participation may be affected by negative attitudes and deficit thinking, physical barriers, poor access to communication aids and appropriate information in accessible formats or a lack of confidence and/or training in the skills necessary to take part (European Agency, no date b).

Baseline assessment is a first assessment in a general or specific area of functioning to determine a learner’s profile of strengths and weaknesses at a particular time. Baseline assessments are often given at the start of teaching and learning programmes. They serve as a starting ‘measure’ to assess progress over a period of time.

‘Something that can be measured and used as a standard that other things can be compared with’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

‘A systematic process of comparing the activities, processes and/or performance of a programme, organization, country, learner, etc. against a theoretical, political or existing reference with the aim of identifying ways to improve performance’ (CEDEFOP (2011) in UNESCO-IBE, Glossary of Curriculum Terminology).

Blended learning in formal education and training involves a diversity of approaches and is to be understood as a school (in primary and secondary education, including vocational education and training), teacher and trainer or learner taking more than one approach to the learning process:

• blending school site and other physical environments away from the school site (either with the presence of a teacher/trainer, or separated by space and/or time in distance learning);
• blending different learning tools that can be digital (including online learning) and non-digital.

Using their professional pedagogical judgement, teachers, trainers and schools will select and facilitate the use of these approaches as part of engaging and effective learning tasks that support broad competence development, as appropriate to the age, abilities and circumstances of the learners and intended learning outcomes.

Other physical environments may include, for example, on the one hand: the home; hospitals (in the case of sick or injured children); and on the other hand cultural and memory institutions; farms, companies and other workplaces; nature sites and outdoors; sports and youth spaces (Council of the European Union, 2021, p. 12).

Capacity building refers to the process of developing and strengthening mainstream schools’ capacity to meet all learners’ needs, rather than distributing additional resources for learners with additional support needs. This process involves increasing the knowledge and skills of all education professionals (i.e. leaders, teachers and specialist staff) and enhancing collaborative practices within schools and across local communities. The ultimate aim is to transform teaching and learning and improve learner outcomes.

Captions are intended for audiences who cannot hear the dialogue. In contrast to subtitles, captions include a description of who is speaking, as well as sounds.

‘Services and activities intended to assist individuals of any age and at any point throughout their lives, to make educational, training and occupational choices and to manage their careers’ (UNESCO-IBE, Glossary of Curriculum Terminology).

In schools, the practice is used to:

… support students in their choice of education and career path. Education and career guidance is provided by in-school guidance/counselling services and it may be taught in the classroom as a subject/topic which forms part of the compulsory curriculum. Guidance seeks to provide students with information as well as to develop the decision-making and other skills important in managing their own educational or career choices. Education and career guidance may also include psycho-educational work or counselling to help students in their progression through school, particularly for students at risk of leaving education early. Extra support is often provided at times of transition between the stages of education or when transferring to other pathways or tracks. Guidance may be complemented by extra-curricular activities and supported by external partners (e.g. for the provision of work experience, etc.) (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice/Cedefop, 2014, p. 139).

Child-friendly schools adopt a rights-based, multi-sectoral approach, concerned with the whole child. According to UNICEF:

Schools should operate in the best interests of the child. Educational environments must be safe, healthy and protective, endowed with trained teachers, adequate resources and appropriate physical, emotional and social conditions for learning. Within them, children’s rights must be protected and their voices must be heard. Learning environments must be a haven for children to learn and grow, with innate respect for their identities and varied needs. The CFS model promotes inclusiveness, gender-sensitivity, tolerance, dignity and personal empowerment (UNESCO/European Agency, no date).

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‘Cloud services are delivered via the Internet from … locations remote from the end user and their institution’ (UNESCO IITE, 2010, p. 2).

Cross-sectoral policies (e.g. for youth) should be: ‘formulated and implemented with the participation of the authorities in charge of all important domains for the life of young people’ (European Commission, 2018c).

Co-teaching or team teaching, also known as collaborative teaching, is a teaching practice to address the diversity of learners and needs in the classroom. It takes place when two (or more) educators work together to plan, organise, instruct and make assessments on the same groups of learners, sharing the same classroom.

In a co-teaching setting, the teachers are considered equally responsible and accountable for the classroom. Co-teaching is often implemented with general and special education teachers paired together as part of an initiative to create a more inclusive classroom.

Working together may include: one teach, one observe; one teach, one assist; station teaching, parallel teaching, alternate teaching; team teaching.

(For more information on these, see Understood, no date).

Opposed to individual learning, collaborative learning develops a community-centred approach. It is a recent trend in human learning and cognition that emphasises participation, joint meaning-making, discourse and dialogue. It is characterised by collaboration, creative processes and the use of new technology.

See ‘Co-teaching / team-teaching’.

Community-based approach motivates women, girls, boys and men in the community to participate in a process which allows them to express their needs and to decide their own future with a view to their empowerment. It requires recognition that they are active participants in decision-making. It also seeks to understand the community’s concerns and priorities, mobilizing community members and engaging them in protection and programming (Defined Term, no date).

Community-based learning refers to a wide variety of instructional methods and programs that educators use to connect what is being taught in schools to their surrounding communities, including local institutions, history, literature, cultural heritage, and natural environments. Community-based learning is also motivated by the belief that all communities have intrinsic educational assets and resources that educators can use to enhance learning experiences for students. …

By using the “community as a classroom,” advocates would argue, teachers can improve knowledge retention, skill acquisition, and preparation for adult life because students can be given more opportunities apply learning in practical, real-life settings.

Approaches include: instructional connections; community integration; community participation; citizen action (‘community-based learning’ in the Glossary of Education Reform).
 

Community-based resources refer to extra-curricular activities, after-school programmes, intervention-based programmes and other external support services in the community that target specific learners, their families and/or teachers. They might include childcare facilities/services, counselling, mental healthcare, other health services and therapeutic/educational interventions (e.g. speech and language therapy), career support services, special services, etc. (European Agency, 2019a).

Compensatory approaches or policy initiatives are those that ‘address the inability of legislation and/or provision to support meaningful inclusive education for all learners (for example, separate educational programmes or provision, support for failing schools, second-chance educational programmes)’ (European Agency, 2018, p. 19).

Competences:

… are conceptualised as a combination of knowledge, skills and attitudes and the definition of each key competence states the knowledge, skills and attitudes relevant for it. This approach supported the definition of learning outcomes and its translation into curricula or learning programmes.

• Knowledge – facts and figures, concepts, ideas and theories which are already established … [and] support the understanding of a certain area or subject;
• Skills – ability and capacity to carry out processes and use the existing knowledge to achieve results;
• Attitudes – disposition and mind-sets to act/react to ideas, persons or situations; in the European Framework of Key Competences also including values, thoughts and beliefs.

The definition of the individual competences and their related knowledge, skills and attitudes overlap and interlock; they reinforce each other (European Commission, 2018b, p. 7).

In most European education systems, compulsory education/training starts at the beginning of primary education (ISCED 1), usually at the age of 6. In 15 education systems, attendance at last year(s) of pre-primary education, usually at the age of 5, is already compulsory. […] In most European education systems, full-time compulsory education/training lasts 9–10 years ending at the age of 15–16 (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2016, p. 3)

A framework of theories, assumptions, principles and rules. It underpins the project’s work and provides a ‘shared vision’ to guide project thinking, ensuring coherence and consistency.

Teachers and leaders need to increase their capacity, skills and motivation to provide all learners with equitable opportunities for academic and wider success. Effective professional development must include activities connected to classroom practice and school improvement priorities. Working with other teachers and professionals within and beyond school can extend knowledge and skills and equip teachers to develop their practice to meet the diverse needs of all learners.

High-quality professional development should support research and innovation, rather than expert inputs or single, short courses. It should move from seeing teachers as users of research produced by others, to seeing teachers as collaborative problem-solvers who share potential solutions and actively consider the relevance of various approaches for different learners and different situations (adapted from European Agency, 2017 and European Agency, 2018b).

(See also ‘Teacher professional learning’)

Refers to a comprehensive model of professional learning support for pre-service, in-service, beginning and experienced teachers, as well as support teachers, specialist teachers, teaching assistants, teacher educators and school leaders.

A continuum of support and services matches the full range of additional needs encountered in every school. For children with special educational needs, a continuum of support should be provided. This ranges from minimal help in mainstream classrooms, to additional learning support programmes within the school. It also extends, where necessary, to assistance from specialist teachers and external support staff. (Refer to: UNESCO, 1994).

For teachers, support staff and school leaders, a continuum of support should be provided through the use of research, networking and links to universities and initial teacher education institutions. This will provide development opportunities for all groups as lifelong learners (European Agency, 2014).

A continuum of support ensures coherent transition within education systems, and from education systems to work. It also ensures co-operation among the different stakeholders involved.

(See also ‘Continuum of professional learning’)

‘A standard or principle by which something is judged, or with the help of which a decision is made’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

Critical factors are those elements that are crucial in the decision-making process and necessary for an organisation or project to achieve its aim.

For example, in the Changing Role of Specialist Provision in Supporting Inclusive Education activity, the level of school autonomy is a critical factor that directly and significantly affects the way schools use specialist services.

Description of what, why, how and how well students should learn in a systematic and intentional way. This definition refers to what is written during curriculum design and development, but through misunderstanding, disagreement or lack of resources, school-level implementation and enactment may diverge from original intentions. For instance:

• Experienced curriculum refers to learning as students experience it, including the knowledge and perspectives learners bring, their ability to learn and their interaction with the curriculum.
• Hidden curriculum refers to student experiences of school beyond the formal curriculum structure, such as messages communicated by the school or education system concerning values, beliefs, behaviours and attitudes, which may complement or undermine the curriculum as intended and implemented (UNESCO, 2020a, p. 419).

Curriculum-based assessment is an assessment linked to programmes of learning. It serves to inform teachers about their pupils’ learning progress and difficulties in relation to the programme of study. This allows teachers to decide about what a pupil needs to learn next and how to teach that material.

Design for all is a ‘design approach to products and services, aiming to make them usable for as many people as possible’ (UNESCO IITE/European Agency, 2011, p. 101).

Design for all ‘is used to describe a design philosophy targeting the use of products, services and systems by as many people as possible without the need for adaptation’. Design for all is design for human diversity, social inclusion and equality (European Institute for Design and Disability, 2004).

‘The act of discovering or identifying the exact cause of an illness or problem’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

Diagnosis is one particular use or purpose of assessment information. It aims to identify particular strengths and weaknesses a learner may have in one or more areas of their functioning. Diagnosis often implies the collection and interpretation of information from a medical perspective, although educational ‘diagnosis’ also occurs. Diagnosis is often one aspect of assessment processes linked to initial identification of special educational needs.

‘Assessment aimed at identifying a learner’s strengths and weaknesses with a view to taking necessary action to enhance learning. Also used prior to the teaching and learning process to appraise the learner’s readiness or level of achievement’ (UNESCO-IBE, Glossary of Curriculum Terminology).

Differentiation is a method of designing and delivering instruction to best reach each learner. Teachers might differentiate content, process, products and/or the learning environment, with the use of on-going assessment and flexible grouping (Tomlinson, 2014). Differentiation in teachers’ practices takes account of learner differences and matches curriculum content and teaching methods to learning styles and learner needs. It may focus on input, task, outcome, output, response, resources or support. Care must be taken, however, that differentiation does not lead to lower expectations and segregation from the mainstream system. It should offer a range of differentiated tasks to everyone in class, giving learners some choice in what they do and how they respond.

‘(as in digital content, digital devices, digital resources, digital technology) – essentially, another word for computers and computer technology. (Computers store and process information by converting it all to single-figure numbers – digits.)’ (UNESCO and Microsoft, 2011, p. 90).

Digital divide refers to ‘the gap between those who can benefit from digital technology and those who cannot’ (Digital Divide Institute, 2015, cited in UNESCO IITE/European Agency, 2011, p. 101).

The digital divide in formal schooling is not simply an equipment differential that can be overcome with further selective investments in hardware, software, and networking. Instead it derives from both within school and within home differences that extend to learning standards as well as support. Student self-learning ability, and in particular, student ability for independent learning, is an additional factor. National policies that attempt to close the digital divide for schooling must attend to all of these contributing factors to be successful (Venezky, 2000, p. 76).

Digital education comprises two different but complementary perspectives: the pedagogical use of digital technologies to support and enhance teaching, learning and assessment and the development of digital competences by learners and education and training staff (European Commission, 2020, p. 95).

Digital Literacy is a broad term used to describe three interrelated dimensions of literate practice:

1. the operational dimension includes the skills and competences that enable individuals to read and write in diverse digital media (including making meaning with and from diverse modes such as spoken and written language, static and moving images, sounds, screen design etc.);
2. the cultural dimension refers to developing a repertoire of digital literacy practices in specific social and cultural contexts (such as constructing and/or maintaining effective social, educational and/or professional relationships online);
3. the critical dimension recognises that meaning-making resources are selective and operate as a means of social control (e.g. knowing what Facebook is up to when it reminds you that your profile is not complete). Becoming critically literate with digital media therefore includes not simply participating competently in digital literacy practices but also developing the ability to transform them actively and creatively.

It is transversal to many activities and is ‘a complex and socio-culturally sensitive issue’ (Lemos and Nascimbeni, 2016, p. 1).

‘Technology in which data is given numerical value. Computer-based tools and products’ (UNESCO IITE/European Agency, 2011, p. 101).

Digital transformation is organisational transformation enabled by digitalisation.

Digital transformation covers both the integration of digital technologies by European enterprises and the impact on society of new technologies, such as the Internet of Things (IoT), cloud computing, innovative digital platforms and blockchain technologies (Negreiro and Madiega, 2019, p. 2).

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities states that: ‘Persons with disabilities include those who have long-term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments which in interaction with various barriers may hinder their full and effective participation in society on an equal basis with others’ (United Nations, 2006, Article 1).

The 2006 UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) guaranteed the right to inclusive education but stopped short of precisely defining inclusion in education. The struggle of people with disabilities has shaped perspectives on inclusion in education.

In 2016, General Comment No. 4 to CRPD Article 24 described inclusive education as involving ‘a process … to provide all students … with an equitable and participatory learning experience and environment that best corresponds to their requirements and preferences’ (UNESCO, 2020a, p. 4).

Refers to those who are more likely to experience low levels of well‑being (OECD, 2017a).

‘Disadvantaged youth’ in many countries is used as an umbrella category which embraces all young people with fewer opportunities than their peers and in some countries other terms like youth-at-risk, vulnerable youth, disconnected youth or social excluded youth are preferred to describe social inequality among young people (Bendit & Stokes, 2003). […] Empirically, access to education and transitions in the life course are structured by categories of social inequality such as socio-economic status and class, gender and ‘ethnicity’. These categories impact the educational and career options available for a young person in an inter-sectional way and lead to different forms of social inclusion and exclusion (GOETE, no date).

A socio-economically disadvantaged (advantaged) school is a school whose socio-economic profile (i.e. the average socio-economic status of the students in the school) is in the bottom (top) quarter of the PISA index of economic, social and cultural status amongst all schools in the relevant country/economy (OECD, 2020a, p. 20).

‘The practice of treating somebody or a particular group in society less fairly than others’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

Legislation is in place in many countries to ensure the right of individuals to be treated equally, for example in education and employment.

‘A difference, especially one connected with unfair treatment’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

Distance learning refers to ‘methods of teaching that take place entirely outside of the classroom environment’ (Education Endowment Foundation, 2020, p. 2).

In a broad sense, distance learning is a term often used synonymously with online learning, e-learning, distance education, correspondence education, external studies, flexible learning, and massive open online courses (MOOCs). Common features of any form of distance learning are: the teacher-learner separation by space or time, or both, and the use of media and technology to enable communication and exchange during the learning process despite this separation. This may be achieved through print-based learning materials, or one-way massive broadcasting (TV and radio programmes), or through web-based exchange using social media channels or learning platforms. Distance learning tends to require a high level of self-directed learning on the part of the learner, and study skills, which must be supported through new teaching, learning and guidance strategies (UNESCO, 2020b, p. 2).

This firstly involves the devolution of responsibilities to middle leadership teams that are able to support and manage the transfer of knowledge and skills when necessary. Secondly, it enables all staff and school stakeholders to take responsibility by promoting flexibility and sharing practice. Thus, this leadership model involves the interactions between those in formal and informal leadership roles much more than the actions they perform. The main concern is how leadership influences organisational and instructional improvement (European Agency, 2020, p. 39).

A multi-faceted concept that can contain many elements and levels of distinction, e.g. age, ethnicity, class, gender, physical abilities, race, sexual orientation, religious status, educational background, geographical location, income, marital status, parental status and work experiences. The OECD defines diversity as: ‘characteristics that can affect the specific ways in which developmental potential and learning are realised, including cultural, linguistic, ethnic, religious and socio-economic differences’ (2010, p. 21).

Diversity refers to the cultural, linguistic, ethnic, developmental and other aspects of human difference that represent some of the many elements of identity that characterise both individuals and groups and account for differences between people (Florian and Pantić, 2017).

… refers to the ease of use of information and communication technologies (ICTs), such as the Internet, by people with disability. Web sites need to be developed so that disabled users can access the information. For example:

• for people who are blind, web sites need to be able to be interpreted by programmes which read text aloud and describe any visual images;
• for people who have low vision, web pages need adjustable sized fonts and sharply contrasting colours; and
• for people who are deaf or hard of hearing, audio content should be accompanied by text versions of the dialogue. Sign language video can also help make audio content more accessible.

Internationally, the Web Content Accessibility Guidelines, prepared by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) provide standards for web accessibility (World Health Organization, 2013).

E-inclusion refers to the situation where everyone in society can participate in the information society.

This requires affordable access to technologies, the accessibility and usability of ICT tools and services, and the ability and skills of all individuals to use these tools (‘E-inclusion’ in Eurostat, no date a).

E-learning, or electronic learning, also referred to as web-based or online learning:

… encompasses a broad range of knowledge transferred through digital technologies, sometimes as a complement to traditional education channels. The use of information and communication technology (ICT) tools is especially powerful for reaching individuals with no access to traditional education and training, either because they live in remote areas or because of their socioeconomic situation or special needs (‘E-learning’ in Eurostat, no date a).

E-skills or electronic skills include those needed to make use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) as well as those required to apply and develop them.

The term *“e-Skills” is defined as covering three main Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) categories:

1. ICT practitioner skills are the capabilities required for researching, developing, designing, strategic planning, managing, producing, consulting, marketing, selling, integrating, installing, administering, maintaining, supporting and servicing ICT systems.
2. ICT user skills are the capabilities required for the effective application of ICT systems and devices by the individual. ICT users apply systems as tools in support of their own work. User skills cover the use of common software tools and of specialised tools supporting business functions within industry. At the general level, they cover “digital literacy”.
3. e-Business skills correspond to the capabilities needed to exploit opportunities provided by ICT, notably the internet; to ensure more efficient and effective performance of different types of organisations; to explore possibilities for new ways of conducting business/administrative and organisational processes; and/or to establish new businesses (‘E-skills’ in Eurostat, no date a).

‘Early childhood education and care’ or ‘early childhood care and education’ (ECEC, or ECCE as termed by UNESCO) refer to:

‘Provision for children from birth through to primary education that falls within a national regulatory framework, i.e., it has to comply with a set of rules, minimum standards and/or undergo accreditation procedures’ (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice/Eurostat, 2014, p. 155).

ECI is a composite of services/provision for very young children and their families. It is provided at their request at a certain time in a child’s life. It covers any action undertaken when a child needs special support to ensure and enhance their personal development, strengthen the family’s own competences, and promote the social inclusion of the family and the child. Different elements that are relevant to ECI are: availability (a shared aim of ECI is to reach all children and families in need of support as early as possible); proximity (the idea of providing family-focused services); affordability (services are offered free of charge or at minimal cost to families); interdisciplinary working (professionals in charge of direct support to young children and their families belong to different disciplines (professions) and consequently have diverse backgrounds according to the service they are related to); and diversity of services (e.g. the involvement of different services – health, social services and education). (Refer to: European Agency, 2010).

This term is linked with the concept of early school leaving (ESL), and refers to those aged between 18–24 who have only reached a low level of education and are not following any further training. ELET, unlike ESL, includes both vocational education and academic routes.

The result of processes that run through a learner’s life and education up to the point of leaving school. It might refer to the phenomenon of:

• ‘leaving school before the end of compulsory education’ – a point which varies from country to country (formal definition) and/or
• ‘leaving school without adequate skills, knowledge or qualifications to deal with adult life and employment’ (functional definition).

Early school leaving ‘should be seen as closely related to other forms of limitation in educational opportunities, participation and achievement. In many cases, it stems from underlying social disadvantage’ (European Agency, 2016a, pp. 5–6).

‘Drop-out’ is often used as a synonym or as an outcome for early school leaving.

‘Early tracking means the early streaming of pupils by abilities into different types of provision or school; this includes placing children into separate schools’ (European Agency, 2018a, p. 34). This is considered a segregation practice that increases inequality in learner outcomes, especially when it occurs before age 13 (INCLUD-ED, 2009). Therefore, it is suggested that support structures avoid early tracking into vocational or academic routes (European Agency, 2019a).

Education finance is a term used to describe the financial and in-kind resources available for education. The concept of education finance also addresses questions about how resources are allocated, used, and accounted for to achieve sustainable, quality education for all children and youth (Education Links, no date).

(See also ‘Funding’)
 

An international initiative first launched in Jomtien, Thailand, in 1990 to bring the benefits of education to ‘every citizen in every society’. In order to realise this aim, a broad coalition of national governments, civil society groups and development agencies, such as UNESCO and the World Bank, committed to achieving several specific education goals (World Bank, 2014). ‘EFA focused world attention on the basic learning needs of neglected groups and on learning achievement rather than on mere attendance’ (European Agency, 2011, p. 13).

A coherent set or sequence of educational activities designed and organized to achieve pre-determined learning objectives or accomplish a specific set of educational tasks over a sustained period. Within an education programme, educational activities may also be grouped into sub-components variously described in national contexts as ‘courses’, ‘modules’, ‘units’ and/or ‘subjects’. A programme may have major components not normally characterised as courses, units or modules – for example, play-based activities, periods of work experience, research projects and the preparation of dissertations (UNESCO/UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2012, p. 79).

Adapts ‘the functionality of the EPUB 3 format’, which is specific to electronic or e-books, ‘to the unique structural, semantic and behavioral requirements of educational publishing’ (International Digital Publishing Forum, 2015).

Materials that are accessible by a computer or other digital devices. It may include text, images, audio, video or a combination of these.

New technologies or continuing development of existing technologies. The term commonly refers to technologies that are currently being developed or that are expected to be available within the next five to ten years. It is usually used in connection with technologies that are creating, or are expected to create, significant social or economic effects. 

A format of electronic or e-books. More specifically, the ‘.epub is the file extension of an XML format for reflowable digital books and publications’. EPUB is composed of three open standards produced by the IDPF (International Digital Publishing Forum) (DAISY, 2015).

Equal opportunities mean the ‘same chances to take part in activities, access services, etc. with no barriers to education and equal life prospects for individuals’ (UNESCO IITE/European Agency, 2011, p. 102). Equal access to learning, achievement and citizenship opportunities allows learners to have similar achievements to their peers. This is particularly made possible through inclusive education (Soriano, Watkins and Ebersold, 2017).

‘A state of affairs or result whereby all members of a group enjoy the same inputs, outputs or outcomes in terms of status, rights and responsibilities’ (UNESCO, 2020a, p. 419).

‘Ensuring that there is a concern with fairness, such that the education of all learners is seen as being of equal importance’ (UNESCO, 2017, p. 7).

The OECD, in the publication No More Failures: Ten Steps to Equity in Education (2007), highlighted two dimensions of equity in education – fairness, ‘which implies ensuring that personal and social circumstances […] should not be an obstacle to achieving educational potential’, and inclusion, which implies ‘ensuring a basic minimum standard of education for all’. Fair and inclusive education is one of the most powerful levers available to make society more equitable.

According to the Council of the European Union:

… equality and equity are not identical and […] education systems must move away from the traditional ‘one-size-fits all’ mentality. Equal opportunities for all are crucial, but not sufficient: there is a need to pursue ‘equity’ in the aims, content, teaching methods and forms of learning being provided for by education and training systems to achieve a high quality education for all (2017, p. 4).

Ethics is concerned with individuals and groups of people, and how attitudes, actions and decisions may influence and have intended and unintended consequences on their own lives and the lives of others. In practice, ethical approaches are clear in their purposes and processes and intend to benefit all those involved. At every stage, steps are taken to reduce power imbalances and bias and to enable all to participate safely and voluntarily (European Agency, 2022a, p. 23).

‘The act of forming an opinion of the amount, value or quality of something after thinking about it carefully’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

A systematic and objective assessment of an on-going or completed project, programme or policy, its design, implementation and results.

Evaluation focuses on the macro level, considering the context of learning and related factors. Assessment measures learning at the micro or learner level and is one element of evaluation. Evaluation should inform next steps and on-going improvement. 

An evaluation (work) plan should specify what will be evaluated, how and when, together with the evaluation design, practices, and procedures to use in conducting the evaluation.

‘The facts, signs or objects that make you believe that something is true’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

‘A discourse or set of methods which informs the policy process, rather than aiming to directly affect’ the goals of the policy (Sutcliffe and Court, 2005, p. iii).

Davies (1999) has defined evidence-based policy-making as an approach which ‘helps people make well informed decisions about policies, programmes and projects by putting the best available evidence at the heart of policy development and implementation’ (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2017, p. 6).

Evidence-based policy is public policy informed by rigorously established objective evidence. Across policy areas, the use of strong evidence to choose policy interventions, prioritise funding and implement policies/programmes enhances the likelihood of positive outcomes (Duke University, 2009).

‘The act of preventing somebody/something from entering a place or taking part in something’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

‘Any form of direct or indirect prevention of access’ (UNESCO, 2020a, p. 419).

Social exclusion occurs when people cannot fully participate or contribute to society because of ‘the denial of civil, political, social, economic and cultural rights’.

[Definitions indicate that] exclusion results from ‘a combination of linked problems such as unemployment, poor skills, low incomes, poor housing, bad health and family breakdown’.

[…] Groups, communities and individuals who because of deprivation, poverty or discrimination are unable to realise their potential and participate and contribute to society are excluded (UNESCO, no date).

External specialist provision refers to out-of-school resources in the form of external centres and institutions that support individual learners and/or empower schools and teachers.

Some countries call them ‘resource centres for inclusion’, others ‘competence centres’, ‘resource centres’ or ‘reference centres’. This type of resource may be responsible for:

• needs identification and educational planning;
• short-term or part-time support for individual learners;
• provision for training and courses for teachers and other professionals;
• support for parents;
• development and dissemination of materials and methods;
• support for transition between phases of education;
• support in entering the labour market (European Agency, 2019b, p. 24).

(See also ‘Specialist provision’)

See ‘Education finance’.

(See also ‘Funding’)

A typography used in text-editing software. A sans serif font is a font without curls or strokes at the end of each character. Times New Roman is an exception of a sans serif font.

Formal education is defined as education that is institutionalized, intentional, planned through public organizations and recognized private bodies and, in their totality, make up the formal education system of a country. Formal education programmes are thus recognized as such by the relevant national educational authorities or equivalent, e.g. any other institution in co-operation with the national or sub-national educational authorities. Formal education consists mostly of initial education. Vocational education, special needs education and some parts of adult education are often recognized as being part of the formal education system. Qualifications from formal education are by definition recognized and are therefore within the scope of ISCED [International Standard Classification of Education]. Institutionalized education occurs when an organisation provides structured educational arrangements, such as student-teacher relationships and/or interactions, that are specially designed for education and learning (UNESCO, 2011, p. 8, cited by European Agency, 2016, pp. 24–25).

How information is converted or packaged – such as text-editing programs or presentations – and delivered or presented to the user. The ending within file names usually shows the format it is saved in, such as .doc, .docx, .rtf, .xls, .csv, .jpg, .pdf, etc.

A variety of methods teachers use to evaluate learner comprehension, learning needs and academic progress during a lesson or course. Formative assessment can help teachers identify concepts that learners are struggling to understand, skills they are having difficulty acquiring or learning standards they have not yet achieved so that lessons, teaching/learning approaches and support can be adjusted.

Formative assessment aims to collect detailed information that can be used to improve teaching and learning while it is happening. What makes an assessment ‘formative’ is not the design of a test, technique or self-evaluation, per se, but the way it is used — i.e. to inform in-process teaching and learning modifications.

Formative assessment is an integral part of effective teaching. It helps learners to develop an understanding of their own strengths and development needs (adapted from ‘formative assessment’ in the Glossary of Education Reform).

Resource allocation mechanisms (financial, human, technical, etc.).

Within an educational context, public funding may come from central, regional or local sources, with variations in transfer of resources between levels and the allocations that schools receive. Degrees of autonomy also vary between system levels.

(See also ‘Education finance’)

Governance refers to how decision making happens in education systems. It refers to the institutions and dynamics through which education systems allocate roles and responsibilities, determine priorities and designs, and carry out education policies and programmes. In today’s increasingly complex social environments, many countries are working to ensure effective planning, implementation and delivery of education policies (OECD, 2019).

Governance mechanisms refer to the structures and processes that are designed to ensure the education system’s accountability, transparency and responsiveness. 

Good governance has been accepted as one of the targets of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). It is also expected to be participatory, accountable, effective and equitable and to promote the rule of law.

Grade repetition or retention refers to the traditional practice of holding learners back to repeat school years. ‘Grade repetition is costly and ineffective in raising educational outcomes’ (OECD, 2012, p. 10). ‘The extensive use of grade retention means holding pupils back to repeat school years, instead of providing flexible individual support’ (European Agency, 2018a, p. 34).

‘… in general it refers to unofficial norms, behaviours and values that teachers teach and students learn at school, or that are directly/indirectly transferred by the school culture or ethos, and which are not necessarily a product of conscious intention’.

While the ‘formal’ curriculum consists of the courses, lessons, and learning activities that learners participate in, as well as the knowledge and skills educators intentionally teach, ‘the hidden curriculum acknowledges that schooling takes place in a broad social and cultural environment that has an influence on learning’ (Adapted from UNESCO-IBE, Glossary of Curriculum Terminology).

There is no universally agreed definition, as identification of this group of learners is linked to context. In every school, there is likely to be learners who require extended educational opportunities.

High ability/giftedness is currently defined in terms of the following traits:

— above-average intellectual ability, with regard to both general and specific skills. Although the traditional yardstick has been the presence of an intelligence quotient of over 130 (100 being the average), in recent years this criterion has been extended and loosened to include the assessment of other equally important indicators:

— high dedication and commitment to tasks: perseverance, interest, resilience, self-confidence, etc.

— high levels of creativity, flexibility and originality in asking questions, responding to and solving problems and difficulties that arise (European Economic and Social Committee, 2013).

(See also ‘Talented’)

When a child’s education is provided in their home environment and not at a school or other organisation. There may be a number of reasons for the provision of home schooling, including (but not limited to) parental choice and the actual or perceived lack of specific provision and/or facilities within schools (European Agency, 2021a, p. 10).

A test of the likely effects of new policies, measuring and assessing their early outcomes.

‘Something that encourages you to do something’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

Within the education field, financing and/or funding mechanisms may be incentives or disincentives to inclusive education. Such mechanisms may also act as incentives for unwanted (so-called) strategic behaviours, such as the over-referral of learners for official labels of special needs that are associated with funding.

Inclusion is both a principle and a process: ‘Inclusion and equity in and through education is the cornerstone of a transformative education agenda […] No education target should be considered met unless met by all’ (World Education Forum, 2015, p. 2).

It can be seen as: ‘A process consisting of actions and practices that embrace diversity and build a sense of belonging, rooted in the belief that every person has value and potential and should be respected’ (UNESCO, 2020a, p. 419).

The term was often associated with disability, but now extends to wider groups as ‘a response to increasingly complex and diverse societies. It treats diversity as an asset which helps prepare individuals for life and active citizenship in increasingly complex, demanding, multi-cultural and integrated societies’ (Soriano, Watkins and Ebersold, 2017, p. 7).

Inclusive assessment refers to assessment that ‘takes into account the needs of all learners, ensuring that they all take part in the assessment procedures and that the learning activities planned as a result are appropriate to each individual’ (Kefallinou and Donnelly, 2016, p. 210). Inclusive assessment is not a new or different set of techniques, but a different way of using assessment to support teaching and learning for all learners.

(See also ‘Universal design for learning’)

Curriculum which takes into consideration and caters for the diverse needs, previous experiences, interests and personal characteristics of all learners. It attempts to ensure that all students are part of the shared learning experiences of the classroom and that equal opportunities are provided regardless of learner differences (UNESCO-IBE, Glossary of Curriculum Terminology).

The Agency considers Inclusive Digital Education as digital transformation that goes far beyond applying suitably designed digital technologies in education. Inclusive digital education involves all education system levels – from the individual, to the educational institution, to the regional or national level. In inclusive education systems, this entails addressing inclusion, exclusion, digitalisation and the digital divide as interconnected and inter-dependent cross-cutting issues. This is vital if digital education is not just to be implemented for some, but is to be permanently anchored in the education system’s structures to foster resilient education systems that provide equitable education opportunities for all learners (European Agency, 2022b, p. 8).

‘An education that promotes mutual respect and value for all persons and builds educational environments in which the approach to learning, the institutional culture and the curriculum reflect the value of diversity’ (UNESCO, 2020a, p. 420).

The Agency views inclusive education as ‘a systemic approach to providing high quality education in mainstream schools that effectively meets the academic and social learning needs of all the learners from the school’s local community’ (European Agency, 2015, p. 2).

Inclusive education supposes a real change at both policy and practice levels regarding education. Learners are placed at the centre of a system that needs to be able to recognise, accept and respond to learner diversity. Inclusive education aims to respond to the principles of efficiency, equality and equity, where diversity is perceived as an asset. Learners also need to be prepared to engage in society, to access meaningful citizenship and to acknowledge the values of human rights, freedom, tolerance and non-discrimination (Soriano, Watkins and Ebersold, 2017, p. 6).

‘An inclusive setting refers to education where the pupil with SEN [special educational needs] follows education in mainstream classes alongside their mainstream peers for the largest part – 80% or more – of the school week’ (European Agency, 2016b, p. 13).

UNESCO stresses the need for a systemic, capacity-building approach to developing inclusive education systems: ‘Implementing changes effectively and monitoring them for impact, recognizing that building inclusion and equity in education is an on-going process, rather than a one-time effort’ (UNESCO, 2017, p. 13).

‘The ultimate vision for inclusive education systems is to ensure that all learners of any age are provided with meaningful, high-quality educational opportunities in their local community, alongside their friends and peers’ (European Agency, 2015a).

An inclusive system in and around schools involves:

… a focus on a supportive, quality learning environment, a welcoming and caring school and classroom climate, addressing holistic needs of students, whether emotional, physical, cognitive or social, and recognising their individual talents and voices, preventing discrimination, as well as being open to the voices and active participation of parents and wider multidisciplinary teams and agencies.

This system takes ‘a particular focus on marginalised and vulnerable groups, including those at risk of early school leaving and alienation from society’ (Downes, Nairz-Wirth and Rusinaitė, 2017, p. 79).

Inclusive pedagogy refers to ‘an approach to teaching and learning that supports teachers to respond to individual differences between learners, but avoids the marginalisation that can occur when some students are treated differently’ (Florian, 2014, p. 289).

Inclusive pedagogy is concerned with redressing the limitations on learning that are often inadvertently placed on children when they are judged ‘less able’. It does not deny differences between learners but seeks to accommodate them by extending what is ordinarily available to all rather than by differentiating for some. Here there is a shift in focus away from the idea of inclusion as a specialized response to some learners that enables them to have access or participate in that which is available to most students. Extending what is ordinarily available to all learners, taking account the fact that there will be individual differences between them is a subtle but profound difference in approaching teaching and learning for all that is the hallmark of inclusive pedagogy (Florian, 2015, p. 13).

Inclusive school leaders (or leadership teams) have the vision that ‘all learners of any age are provided with meaningful, high-quality educational opportunities in their local community, alongside their friends and peers’ (European Agency, 2015a, p. 1). Such leaders combine elements of instructional, transformative and distributed leadership models. They take responsibility for and value all learners. They work to ensure learners’ full participation and engagement by setting a clear direction, developing staff and other stakeholders and using all available evidence, experience and expertise to collaboratively create and sustain the learning community and support everyone to achieve the best possible outcomes.

Inclusive school leadership goes beyond organisation. It aims to address inequity to build community and full participation. It focuses on developing an inclusive culture where all stakeholders are supported to work together, value diversity and ensure that all learners, including those most vulnerable to exclusion, receive a high-quality education (European Agency, 2020, p. 41).

An indicator is defined as a parameter, or a value derived from a parameter, which aims to provide information about the state of a phenomenon. Indicators can provide a systemic approach to evaluation, useful for complex areas, such as education when longer-term outcomes are important and the work does not correspond to a straightforward input-output or linear model. Numbers or statistics are not necessarily required and indicators can highlight the relationship between different components. Indicators are a dynamic system with explicit values that will differ according to the cultural context and project elements.

‘Written plan setting out a student’s present performance level along with goals and objectives, as well as services and timelines to meet those goals and objectives’ (UNESCO, 2020a, p. 420).

Parents and other professionals/specialists may be involved in developing individual education plans.

‘The act of making something different to suit the needs of a particular person, place, etc.’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

Individualisation is led by the teacher, who provides instruction and tasks/activities to accommodate the learning needs of each learner. This can include the use of digital technology. The teacher should ensure that there is sufficient time to interact with learners and also involve them in managing their own learning, moving towards a more personalised approach. (See definition of ‘Personalisation’). Care should be taken to ensure that individual tasks do not increase segregation.

Individualised forms of support may be provided in mainstream groups or classes for learners who have special needs, including learners with disabilities, to enable them to participate in learning opportunities with their peers.

‘Facts or details about somebody/something’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

The ICT4IAL Guidelines focus on the aim of sharing messages to inform and build knowledge in a learning environment. Within the ICT4IAL Guidelines, the different types of information considered are text, image, audio and video (European Agency, 2015c).

[W]ithin the i-access project the term ‘information’ is extended to information in any given format – print or electronic, audio or visual – and is also extended to communication and interaction to cover, for example, the possibility of contacting an organisation to get relevant information. The project focus is on information relevant for lifelong learning. However, the recommendations of the i-access project will be equally valuable for any form of information provision (European Agency, 2012a, p. 48).

ICT ‘covers all technical means used to handle information and aid communication. This includes both computer and network hardware, as well as their software’ (‘Information and communication technology (ICT)’ in Eurostat, no date a).

Any individual or organisation that creates and distributes information.

Information society is ‘a society in which the creation, distribution and treatment of information have become the most significant economic and cultural activities’ (United Nations University, 2016, p. 8). The information society is ‘considered as a necessary previous step to build Knowledge Societies’ (ibid., p. 9).

Initial identification refers to the recognition/detection of possible barriers to learning. This recognition should lead to the systematic collection of information that can be used to develop a profile of strengths and areas for development that can inform approaches to teaching and learning and support. Initial identification of additional learning/support needs may be linked to other assessment procedures. It may involve professionals outside of the mainstream school (including health professionals). In most countries, separate legislation directly governs the procedures for initial identification of additional support needs.

‘Pre-service training provided to student teachers before they have undertaken any teaching, eventually leading to a teaching qualification. It usually takes place in higher education institutions’ (European Agency, 2015d, p. 8).

(See also ‘Teacher professional learning’)

See ‘Needs-based funding’

Instructional leadership emphasises the importance of establishing clear educational goals, planning the curriculum and evaluating teachers and teaching. The prime focus is on leaders’ responsibility for promoting better measurable outcomes for learners, highlighting the importance of enhancing the quality of classroom teaching and learning (Day, Gu and Sammons, 2016).

Instructional leadership furthermore emphasises the creation of a supportive, encouraging work environment that can support the development of teaching practices best suited to improve academic performance (Hansen and Lárusdóttir, 2015). This type of leadership has also been termed ‘learning-centred leadership, leadership for learning or curriculum leadership’, as one key dimension focuses on developing and co-ordinating an effective school curriculum (Gumus, Bellibas, Esen and Gumus, 2018) (European Agency, 2020, p. 41).

This is generally linked to the placement of learners in mainstream schools. It carries with it an idea that learners need to be educationally and/or socially ‘ready’ for transfer from specialist provision to mainstream schools. The expectation is that learners will adapt to the school, rather than the school changing to accommodate the learners and meet a wider range of diverse needs.

(See also ‘Partial integration’)

Interdisciplinary framework refers to professionals from more than one academic discipline working together to examine a theme, issue, question or topic (Pedagogy in Action, no date).

Education programmes at ISCED level 0 are coded 01 for early childhood educational development programmes and 02 for pre-primary education programmes. 

Programmes at ISCED level 0, or early childhood education, are typically designed with a holistic approach to support children’s early cognitive, physical, social and emotional development and introduce young children to organized instruction outside of the family context. ISCED level 0 refers to early childhood programmes that have an intentional education component. These programmes aim to develop socio-emotional skills necessary for participation in school and society. They also develop some of the skills needed for academic readiness and prepare children for entry into primary education (UNESCO/UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2012, p. 26).

Programmes at ISCED level 1, or “primary” education, are typically designed to provide students with fundamental skills in reading, writing and mathematics (i.e. literacy and numeracy), and to establish a sound foundation for learning and understanding of core areas of knowledge, personal and social development, preparing for lower secondary education. It focuses on learning at a basic level of complexity with little if any specialisation (UNESCO, 2011, p. 26).

Programmes at ISCED level 2, or “lower secondary” education, are typically designed to build upon the learning outcomes from ISCED level 1. Usually, the educational aim is to lay the foundation for lifelong learning and human development on which education systems may systematically expand further educational opportunities. Some education systems may already offer vocational education programmes at ISCED level 2 to provide individuals with skills relevant to employment (UNESCO, 2011, p. 29).

‘Programmes at ISCED level 3, or upper secondary education, are typically designed to complete secondary education in preparation for tertiary education or provide skills relevant to employment, or both’ (UNESCO/UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2012, p. 37).

The interconnected nature of all social categorisations – when considering the needs of all learners (Nadan and Korbin, 2018).

According to the OECD, ‘the extent and degree of intersectionality of different forms of diversity with SEN [special educational needs] are not only restricted to binary interrelations; rather, various forms can coexist and interact’ (Brussino, 2020, p. 20).

These forms of diversity can include, for example: ‘gender, remoteness, wealth, disability, ethnicity, language, migration, displacement, incarceration, sexual orientation, gender identity and expression, religion and other beliefs and attitudes’ (UNESCO, 2020a, p. 4) or ‘national minorities and Indigenous peoples, and giftedness’ (Brussino, 2020, p. 63).

Key drivers are those conditions that are necessary to achieve the change/transformation necessary to support inclusive education. Key drivers may also force or highlight the need for change. For example, a school’s organisational flexibility is a key driver for improving the way specialists collaborate with mainstream teachers. A commitment to resources and excellence for all are key drivers for inclusive education.

‘Knowledge societies contribute to the well-being of individuals and communities, and encompass social, ethical and political dimensions’ (United Nations University, 2016, p. 9).

‘Knowledge societies must build on four pillars: freedom of expression; universal access to information and knowledge; respect for cultural and linguistic diversity; and quality education for all’ (UNESCO, 2021a).

Leadership has been interpreted in different ways, but at the core it is found in social relationships with social goals; it is defined as a process of providing direction and applying influence (Lumby and Coleman, 2016). It has to do with managing people’s emotions, thoughts and actions decisively in order to influence others towards a preferred direction (Diamond and Spillane, 2016) (European Agency, 2018c, p. 8).

Effective continua of support in inclusive education systems encompass personalised approaches to learning that engage all learners and support their active participation in the learning process. This involves developing learner-centred curricula and assessment frameworks; flexible training and continuous professional development opportunities for all educators, school leaders and decision-makers; and coherent governance processes at all system levels (Watkins, 2017).

Learners vulnerable to exclusion encompasses all learners whose educational experience is ‘impacted upon by a number of pressures, forces, levers, discriminations and disadvantages’ (European Agency, 2021b, p. 6). These learners may or may not fall into categories of special needs and a special type of provision may or may not be available to support them (European Agency, 2022c, p. 34).

‘Learners with additional support needs’ refers to learners from pre-primary up to higher education and lifelong learning who experience barriers to learning resulting from learner-environment interaction.

Good quality learning and teaching will meet a range of diverse needs without additional support. However, some learners will need additional support, different resources or adapted pedagogical approaches to ensure they gain the most benefit from their education.

There are many reasons why learners may need additional support (either short- or long-term) to help them learn. Such needs may be due to:

• disability or health;
• learning environment;
• family circumstances;
• social and emotional factors.

Learners with disabilities may have a limitation in one or multiple functional domains (e.g. walking, seeing), on a spectrum from minimal to severe. The limitation arises from the interaction between a person’s intrinsic capacity and environmental and personal factors that hinder their full, effective participation in society on an equal basis with others.

Learners with special educational needs may have a ‘learning difficulty and/or disability that may require special education support. Countries define these needs differently’ (UNESCO, 2020a, p. 420).

‘Collaborations of stakeholders around clusters of schools involving both school and community personnel, together with researchers, local area leaders and policy-makers’ (European Agency, 2015e, p. 7).

Such communities share and critically reflect on practice in an on-going process that promotes further learning. Parents and community stakeholders play an important role in the learning and support network around schools, developing social capital.

Features of learning communities include:

• Shared values and vision
• Collective responsibility for and focus on learning and personal growth of learners/other stakeholders
• Respectful relationships that involve mutual trust and support
• ‘Shared’ authority
• Collaboration with external partners (European Agency, 2015e).

A learning platform is an integrated set of interactive online services that provide teachers, learners, parents and others involved in education with information, tools and resources to support and enhance educational delivery and management. It is not a single ‘off the shelf’ product but a collection of tools and services designed to support teaching, learning, management and administration (Jewitt, Hadjithoma-Garstka, Clark, Banaji and Selwyn, 2010, p. 4).

Along with the individual education plan, learning support assistants (LSAs) are the most used form of support for learners with disabilities/other additional support needs. They are also called ‘teaching assistants’, ‘special needs assistants’ or ‘paraprofessionals’. Roles, responsibilities, training and qualifications vary across countries, but research now indicates that LSAs should work to support teachers and all learners in class to avoid stigma and reduce possible dependency.

Lesson study is a Japanese model of teacher-led research, in which a triad of teachers work together to target an identified area for development in their pupils’ learning. Using existing evidence, participants collaboratively research, plan, teach and observe a series of lessons, using on-going discussion, reflection and expert input to track and refine their interventions (Teacher Development Trust Network, no date).

Lifelong learning encompasses all learning activities undertaken throughout life with the aim of improving knowledge, skills and competences, within personal, civic, social or employment-related perspectives. The intention or aim to learn is the critical point that distinguishes these activities from non-learning activities, such as cultural or sporting activities (‘Lifelong learning’ in Eurostat, no date a).

Lifelong learning must cover learning from the pre-school age to that of post-retirement, including the entire spectrum of formal, non-formal and informal learning. … the principles in this context should be: the individual as the subject of learning, highlighting the importance of an authentic equality of opportunities, and quality in learning (Council of the European Union, 2002).

Authorities responsible for territorial units below regional level. Local authorities may comprise elected representatives or they may be administrative divisions of central authorities (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2014).

A local (pre-)school with local community friends and peers, maintained/provided by the relevant educational authorities (municipality, local or regional authority, working with the ministry responsible for national education). 

Within mainstream (pre-)schools, there may be mainstream groups/classes, where a child/learner spends the majority (80% or more) of their time with their peers, or separate groups/classes, where the child/learner spends 20% or more of their time away from their peers (European Agency, 2021a, p. 9).

‘The process or result of making somebody feel as if they are not important and cannot influence decisions or events; the fact of putting somebody in a position in which they have no power’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

Barely provided for or able to access services or participate in society. Generally understood as a social process by which vulnerable groups are moved out of the mainstream to a powerless position in society.

‘Of a group within a given culture, context or history: at risk of being excluded and discriminated against because of the interplay of differing personal characteristics or grounds’ (UNESCO, 2020a, p. 420).

Marginalised groups – include those experiencing poverty and social exclusion, bullying, mental health difficulties and/or special educational needs, students at risk of early school leaving, as well as some groups of migrants and minorities. Such groups need a distinct focus on processes and structures for their representation and participation (Downes, Nairz-Wirth and Rusinaitė, 2017).

Meaningful participation occurs when learners and their families have the opportunity to express their views, influence decision-making and achieve change in areas that affect their lives.

Their respective opinions must be sought, listened to, valued, promoted and shared in planning, in decision-making and in practice, to include shared opportunities for feedback and further input. Those who were previously unheard or overlooked must be engaged in interactive dialogue with others in more powerful positions than themselves. Such participatory approaches are fundamental to the development, implementation and sustainability of inclusive organisations and education systems (European Agency, 2022d, p. 13).

‘An official action that is done in order to achieve a particular aim’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

Within education, measures may be policy- or practice-oriented.

‘The act or the process of finding the size, quantity or degree of something’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

In education, assessment linked to some form of numerical quantifier (a score, mark or grade). Usually, measurement implies the possibility of comparing one learner’s score/mark with others.

‘A method or a system for achieving something’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

Within education, mechanisms are often strategies linked to progress towards specified policy goals or objectives.

A channel through which information can be shared. Media usually contains different types of information simultaneously. Examples include electronic documents, online resources and online learning tools.

Mental health is influenced by many factors, including genetic predisposition, socio-economic background, adverse childhood experiences, chronic medical conditions or abuse of alcohol or drugs.

Therefore, mental health and well-being are interlinked issues that are affected by policies and actions in a range of sectors, including education, health, employment, social inclusion and efforts to tackle poverty.

This relationship is reciprocal: without adequate mental health prevention, support and treatment, the risks of poorer education or unemployment increase.

To be mentally healthy means being capable of self-realisation, being at ease when forming the relationships with other people, to contribute to the life in the community and being productive at work. A mentally healthy individual is also able to overcome normal tensions, sorrows and life setbacks (European Commission, no date).

Mental health is explicitly included in the Sustainable Development Goals, ‘providing an opportunity to enhance mental health and well-being across countries and professional disciplines’ (Dybdahl and Lien, 2017, p. 1).

(See also ‘Well-being’)

A digital label given to information. It is machine-readable and aids the search and categorisation of information, thereby improving searchability.

Mobiles enable ubiquitous access to information, social networks, tools for learning and productivity, and much more. Mobile devices continue to evolve, but it is the increased access to affordable and reliable networks that is driving this technology now. Mobiles are capable computing devices in their own right — and they are increasingly a user’s first choice for Internet access (Johnson, Smith, Willis, Levine & Haywood, 2011, p. 5).

‘Watching, checking something over a period of time to see how it develops, so that necessary changes can be made’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

The process of systematically tracking aspects of education/school ‘implementation, with a view toward data collection, accountability and/or enhancing effectiveness and/or quality’ (OECD, 2015, p. 235).

A monitoring framework should be designed to monitor quality at different levels (country, region, schools) and for different groups (school authorities, teachers, learners). It should ‘draw on a number of different tools and components to collect and organize data needed to monitor a system’s performance’. This includes tools at the school level for data on learners and teachers, ‘national education management information systems (EMIS), human resource or teacher management information systems for teacher recruitment and deployment, inspection and appraisal systems, and financial management systems’. The framework may also include system-level learner evaluations.

Monitoring may include compliance monitoring, diagnostic monitoring and performance monitoring, which may all co-exist within the system (UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning, 2021).

This refers to four main types of services that have traditionally supported learners with disabilities: the educational sector, the health sector, social services and voluntary bodies.

The top level of authority with responsibility for education in a given country, usually located at national (state) level. However, in Belgium, Germany, Spain and the United Kingdom, the ‘regions’ (Communautés, Länder, Comunidades Autónomas and devolved administrations, respectively) are responsible for all or most areas relating to education. They are therefore considered the top level of authority (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2014).

A process to discover gaps that exist between the current state of an individual (or organisation) and a desired one.

A needs analysis involves a study of the factors which cause the gap to find solutions and ways to overcome difficulties (often forming the basis of an individual education plan (IEP)).

Educational interventions developed based on needs assessment and analysis may target learners or teachers (e.g. to fill gaps in knowledge/teaching approaches) or other elements of the education system.

Needs-based funding (also sometimes referred to as ‘input funding’; see Meijer, 1999) is when the funding is based, for example, on the identified need of each of the destination levels, such as the number of learners with special needs in a school, municipality or region. Inputs may also be defined in terms of referral rates, low achievement scores, the number of disadvantaged learners and so on. The key point is that funding is based on the (expressed or measured) needs (European Agency, 2018d).

The acronym NEET refers to young people who are neither in employment nor in education and training. The NEET population has its own definitional variations, as official policies switch between counting certain age groups (Furlong, 2006). According to Eurostat (no date b), the term includes young people aged 20–34, who meet two conditions:

• they are not employed — in other words, they are unemployed or economically inactive;
• they are not receiving any (formal or non-formal) education or training.

OECD data (2021) indicates that young people who are NEET are ‘at risk of becoming socially excluded – individuals with income below the poverty-line and lacking the skills to improve their economic situation’.

Education that is institutionalized, intentional and planned by an education provider. The defining characteristic of non-formal education is that it is an addition, alternative and/or a complement to formal education within the process of the lifelong learning of individuals. … Non-formal education mostly leads to qualifications that are not recognized as formal qualifications by the relevant national educational authorities or to no qualifications at all (UNESCO Institute for Statistics, no date).

An official decision leads to a child/learner being recognised as eligible for additional educational support to meet their learning needs.

An official decision meets the following criteria:

• There has been some form of educational assessment procedure involving different people. This procedure may involve the child/learner, parents, school-based team members, as well as professionals from multi-disciplinary teams from outside the child/learner’s (pre-)school.
• There is some form of legal document (plan/programme, etc.) that describes the support the child/learner is eligible to receive, which is used as the basis for decision-making.
• There is some form of regular review process of the child/learner’s needs, progress and support (European Agency, 2021a, p. 8).

Online learning is defined as learning that takes place using digital technology to connect different devices and to facilitate interaction between the learner and teachers, trainers or other educational staff, or other learners, aimed at obtaining learning content or other information to achieve the objectives of learning programmes (Council of the European Union, 2021, p. 12).

Open educational resources (OER) are teaching, learning and research materials in any medium – digital or otherwise – that reside in the public domain or have been released under an open license that permits no-cost access, use, adaptation and redistribution by others with no or limited restrictions. OER form part of ‘Open Solutions’, alongside Free and Open Source software (FOSS), Open Access (OA), Open Data (OD) and crowdsourcing platforms (UNESCO, 2021b).

‘Available for everyone to use’ (Cambridge Dictionary).

According to the Agency’s Open Access Policy, open-access refers to content that is digital, available online, free to access and free of most usage restrictions. The goal of open access is to provide resources to everyone who can benefit from them.

In the Agency context, users are free to access, use and disseminate open-access resources with appropriate credit to the Agency. However, users may not modify or translate these resources without the Agency’s approval.

‘Open-source software is free to use, and the original program can be changed by anyone’ (Cambridge Dictionary).

In the context of Agency work, users are free to access, use, modify and disseminate open-source materials with appropriate credit to the Agency. This includes publications intended for practical use, such as self-review tools. See the Agency’s Open Access Policy for more information.

School leaders play a critical role in implementing inclusive policy and practice and, in particular, in creating a school culture that embraces diversity and promotes inclusion (Cherkowski and Ragoonaden, 2016; Mac Ruairc, 2013). Thus, school leaders are responsible for maintaining a school culture that is collegial, interactive and focused on supporting teachers and learners throughout the educational process. Setting the tone for an inclusive culture requires school leaders to place emphasis on nurturing teacher morale, partnerships with parents and professional collegiality. This will then affect the learning environment created for learners (Fultz, 2017).

Using human and financial resources strategically and aligning them with pedagogical purposes can influence the way school activities improve teaching and learning. Thus, school leaders must be involved in decisions regarding teacher recruitment. Being able to select teaching staff is central to establishing a school culture and capacity that has a beneficial effect on learners’ achievement (Stoll and Temperley, 2010).

Within the EASIE data collection, this refers to children/learners who should, by law, be in some form of recognised education, but who are out of any recognised form of education. A form of education is any type of education provided by any educational provider in the public or private sector.

The literature on national-level work shows that different terms are used across and within countries to refer to out-of-school: not enrolled, drop-out, early school leavers and not in education, employment or training (NEET) are some, but not all, in evidence. In addition, there is ambiguity around the notion of absenteeism. A learner’s transition from being ‘absent from school’ to formally ‘dropping out’ is rarely clearly defined in research or data collection.

Within work linked to Sustainable Development Goal 4, UNESCO has developed the following working definitions for:

• Out-of-school children: ‘Children in the official primary school age range who are not enrolled in either primary or secondary school’.
• Out-of-school adolescents and youth: ‘Those of lower or upper secondary school age who are not enrolled in primary, secondary, post-secondary non-tertiary or tertiary education’ (UNESCO, 2018, p. 356).

Being considered out-of-school is most often linked to a learner’s age in relation to compulsory education, and their access to, enrolment in and participation in some form of educational provision.

The COVID-19 crisis in education will probably reshape the notions of ‘out of school’ and ‘drop out’. School closures, moves towards distance and blended teaching and learning methods and the rise in home schooling have implications for access to education and access to an inclusive education for a growing number of learners.

In this funding model, funds are allocated on the basis of output: for example, in terms of the number of referred learners (the lower the number, the more funds) or achievement scores (added value: the higher the achievement scores, the more funds). The output can be defined on the basis of different aggregation levels. An output-based system generates behaviour towards achieving the desired results. An output model may reinforce the referral of learners with expected low gains in achievement scores to other parts of the system (Meijer, 1999, pp. 152–153).

‘Something that a person, or an organisation produces. Information/results produced by a computer’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

Inclusive education systems are most effectively supported by a complementary combination of prevention, intervention and compensation policy actions. The goal of inclusive education systems is supported by policy actions that are aimed at:

• Prevention – policy initiatives that aim to avoid educational exclusion and longer-term social exclusion, before these issues emerge (for example, anti-discrimination legislation promoting a rights approach, avoidance of disabling policies that lead to gaps in provision, lack of qualifications, etc.).
• Intervention – policy initiatives that support the effective implementation of inclusive education (for example, the existence of clear policies leading to high-quality flexible support systems for mainstream education).
• Compensation – policy initiatives that address the inability of legislation and/or provision to support meaningful inclusive education for all learners (for example, separate educational programmes or provision, support for failing schools, second-chance educational programmes) (European Agency, 2018, p. 19).

‘Partial integration’ means that some learners are partially educated in a mainstream class (for subjects mastered through mainstream programmes) and partially educated in a special class (for subjects mastered through intensified teaching or special programmes). Here, the learner belongs to a mainstream class, with the special class offering regular sessions for some form of special programme (European Agency, 2019b, p. 22).

(See also ‘Integration’)
 

UNICEF describes participation as:

… an ongoing process of children’s expression and active involvement in decision-making at different levels in matters that concern them, requiring information-sharing and dialogue between children/adolescents and adults based on mutual respect, and … [requiring] that full consideration of their views be given, taking into account the child’s age and maturity (2013, p. 7).

Like educational inclusion, participation is often seen as a human rights issue and an essential component of social justice (European Agency, 2011).

Participation is about the quality of the learning experience from a learner perspective, and therefore it must incorporate the views of the learners themselves. … It relates to school-level process factors which facilitate or hinder a sense of belonging and a sense of autonomy to the learner, as well as a sense of a meaningful participation with peers of the same age. As such, participation mainly refers to processes at the meso (school or classroom) and micro (individual learner) levels (Ramberg and Watkins, 2020, p. 90).

(See also ‘Meaningful participation’)

A process that includes stakeholders in the early stages of design. This involvement of stakeholders and end-users together allows the design to be more open and lends itself to user-centred design (adapted from Rosenzweig, 2015).

Pedagogy encompasses:

… teachers’ attitudes, beliefs and ideas, as well as their knowledge and understanding of the teaching and learning process and the diversity of learners – all of which impact on their practice in the classroom. This includes for example:

• communication and social interaction (with and between learners);
• visual methods to support learning;
• organising tasks to engage learners;
• monitoring and using feedback for further planning;
• formative and summative assessment of learners (involving learners themselves).

Pedagogy ‘acknowledges the importance of relationships’ and ‘sees teachers working alongside learners with concern for their holistic development and well-being’ (European Agency, 2015e, p. 10).

In the context of education co-operation at European Union level, peer counselling is an instrument/process that:

… brings together professional peers from a small number of national administrations to provide external advice to a country in the process of a policy development. It is intended to go beyond information-sharing and provide a forum for finding solutions to national challenges in a participatory workshop (European Commission, 2018d, p. 1).

In the context of education co-operation at European Union level, peer learning is:

… a method of observing both positive and negative examples of policy reforms adopted in other countries in order to draw lessons from them. Its strength lies in the contextualisation of policies, broadness and flexibility of discussion themes, qualitative nature of information and low levels of politicisation based on mutual trust between the Member States (European Commission, 2018d, p. 1).

A process of tailoring education to a learner’s current situation, characteristics and needs to help achieve the best possible progress and outcomes. Personalised learning can include personalising the curriculum, courses, learning materials and activities, and different forms of learning support. Each learner is provided with education that is tailored to their individual characteristics and needs. They learn in a way that is most suitable for them, resulting in different learning experiences for each learner (Adapted from Seel, 2012 in UNESCO-IBE, Glossary of Curriculum Terminology).

Personalisation involves working closely with parents and families to address any support requirements holistically. Personalisation is not ‘individualisation of learning’, which is essentially a teacher-driven action. Learner participation and involvement in decision-making is crucial to distinguishing between the two approaches. Personalisation requires learners to reflect in an interactive process – co-creating learning with the teacher but, over time, taking increasing responsibility and managing their own learning (within the framework of the country’s curriculum and standards) (European Agency, 2012b).

Policy refers to a stated course or principle of action that is either adopted or proposed in order to meet goals, aims and objectives. It is written in official documents to direct the implementation of agreed actions.

Policy and legislation are connected, but distinct. Legislation outlines the requirements and policy then details the framework for ensuring that the requirements are put into action. The implementation of actions then needs to be guided by supporting policy documents (rules, guidelines, guidance materials, etc.).

A policy framework brings together policies/policy elements that set out the requirements and processes for reaching policy goals in line with national/organisational values and principles. A policy framework outlines roles and responsibilities for policy development, stakeholder engagement, implementation, dissemination, monitoring/evaluation, governance and operational processes (European Agency, 2018d, p. 17).

The UNESCO (2009) Policy Guidelines set out policy concerns, policy questions, gaps to be resolved and suggested actions. The suggested actions are the focus of the Inclusive Education in Action project.

A ‘test run’, the results of which will help to influence the shape and delivery of the final policy.

The extent to which one can generalise from the results of any pilot study to a larger class of cases.

Pre-primary education (International Standard Classification of Education – ISCED – 0) is:

… the initial stage of organised instruction … designed primarily to introduce very young children to a school-type environment, i.e. to provide a bridge between the home and a school-based atmosphere. Upon completion of these programmes, children continue their education at level 1 (primary education).

ISCED level 0 programmes are usually school-based or otherwise institutionalised for a group of children (e.g. centre-based, community-based, home-based).

Early childhood educational development (ISCED level 010) has educational content designed for younger children (in the age range of 0 to 2 years). Pre-primary education (ISCED level 020) is designed for children aged at least 3 years (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2020, p. 275).

Persons who ‘are not able to use the printed books, newspapers, and magazines – including those with dyslexia, motor disabilities or age-related macular degeneration’ (DAISY, 2015b).

Monitoring and accountability mechanisms that take a procedural approach encourage stakeholders to only follow prescribed administrative procedures and bureaucratic rules. Such control mechanisms can be seen as a barrier to, or disincentive for, innovation and school-led development.

A pilot designed to explore the practicalities of implementing a policy in a particular way or by a particular route, assessing what methods of delivery work best or are most cost-effective.

Process-oriented assessment is an assessment that aims to develop pupil learning though change or improvement in their learning environment. The methods associated with this form of assessment are usually pupil-oriented, for example pupil interviews, portfolios, etc.

Professional learning refers to any activity undertaken by education professionals that aims to stimulate their thinking and professional knowledge and to improve their practice, ensuring that it is evidence-informed and up-to-date. Professional learning includes activities that take place throughout an individual’s professional career.

(See also ‘Teacher professional learning’)

A professional learning community refers to collaborations of education stakeholders ‘around clusters of schools involving …. school and community personnel, together with researchers, local area leaders and policy-makers’ (European Agency, 2015e, p. 7).

Professional learning communities may serve two broad purposes:

(1) improving the skills and knowledge of educators through collaborative study, expertise exchange, and professional dialogue, and (2) improving the educational aspirations, achievement, and attainment of students through stronger leadership and teaching. Professional learning communities often function as a form of action research—i.e., as a way to continually question, reevaluate, refine, and improve teaching strategies and knowledge (‘professional learning community’ in the Glossary of Education Reform).

(See also ‘Learning community’)

‘The process of improving or developing, or of getting nearer to achieving or completing something; the process of developing gradually from one stage or state to another’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

To enable learner progress, schools need to:

• understand all learners’ current situations and support them by using information to plan future steps;
• develop the ‘capability to meet learner needs and increase curriculum relevance, helping learners to gain competences’ for future life, studies and employment
• be flexible to ‘adapt pedagogical strategies and provide support’ – to increase ‘access to appropriate learning opportunities’ and develop learners’ knowledge and skills.

‘Schools should be clear about what progress might look like for all learners, particularly when it does not lead to traditional recognition’, e.g. through examinations. Progress may be shown (for example, by learners with more complex support needs) by ‘increased responses, improved communication and social skills, reduced need for support, less reliance on routines, reduction in challenging behaviour, transfer of learning between different situations or increased self-advocacy’ (European Agency, 2015e, pp. 12–13).
 

The term ‘provision’ includes all forms of support that may help the process of participation in education for all learners: curriculum, assessment procedures, forms of pedagogy, organisation and management and resources that contribute to the development of supportive systems that promote inclusive education.

‘Connected with what something is like or how good it is, rather than with how much of it there is’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

Qualitative research is an iterative process that aims to improve understanding by getting close to the phenomenon studied. It explores issues of ‘why’ and ‘how’ by analysing information, often in the form of words (e.g. notes from observations/interviews), pictures, videos or objects rather than statistics. This type of research involves interpreting events. It may be more subjective, producing data that is less readily generalised.

‘The practice of managing the way goods are produced or services are provided to make sure they are kept at a high standard’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

Quality assurance refers to the ‘policies, procedures and practices designed to achieve, maintain and enhance quality in inclusive education’. It also involves ‘how educational organisations account for their activities, accept responsibility for them and share information on their results openly and transparently’ (European Agency, 2018e, p. 17).

Quality education:

a. gives access to learning to all pupils and students, particularly those in vulnerable or disadvantaged groups, adapted to their needs as appropriate;

b. provides a secure and non-violent learning environment in which the rights of all are respected;

c. develops each pupil’s and student’s personality, talents and mental and physical abilities to their fullest potential and encourages them to complete the educational programmes in which they enrol;

d. promotes democracy, respect for human rights and social justice in a learning environment which recognises everyone’s learning and social needs;

e. enables pupils and students to develop appropriate competences, self-confidence and critical thinking to help them become responsible citizens and improve their employability;

f. passes on universal and local cultural values to pupils and students while equipping them also to make their own decisions;

g. certifies outcomes of formal and non-formal learning in a transparent way based on fair assessment enabling acquired knowledge and competences to be recognised for further study, employment and other purposes;

h. relies on qualified teachers who are committed to continuous professional development;

i. is free of corruption (Council of Europe Committee of Ministers, 2012).

‘Connected with the amount or number of something rather than with how good it is’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

As opposed to qualitative research, quantitative research is concerned with analysis of numerical data.

Reasonable adjustments are a way to remove barriers to education. Schools adjust policies and practices in education and associated services for learners with disabilities. The duty applies to all staff and is anticipatory (not compensatory). This means that adjustments are in place before learners with particular requirements are present in school. It recognises each learner’s right to attend and the need to remove barriers to participation and learning.

‘A recognised form of education is any type of education organised by or approved by any recognised educational provider in the public or private sector’ (European Agency, 2021a, p. 10).

The regional level:

… is the first territorial unit below the national level in countries that do not have a federal or similar type of governmental structure, and the second territorial unit below the national level in countries with federal or similar … governmental structures. The regional level includes, among others, regional governments, regional education, financial and legislative authorities, and regional auditing services (OECD, 2017b, p. 292).

‘The quality of being likely to be correct or true’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

In research, reliability refers to the consistency of a measure across time, across items and across researchers. A test may be said to be reliable if the same result is obtained repeatedly.

Method of delivery, which involves teaching and learning activities where educators and learners are not physically present in one location at the same time. In this case, learning happens away from the physical site of an educational provider with educators and learners using different means to connect and engage with a programme, course or educational activity. … remote education is used as a broad term which … [comprises], among others, the possibility to organise and deliver teaching and learning activities at distance (e.g. by using radio, TV or electronic resources) or online (e.g. requiring learners to use a connected device) (European Commission, 2020, pp. 97–98).

Resilience is the ability to prepare for, work through, respond to and mitigate unforeseen challenges.

Challenges may damage individuals, institutions and communities, but they also create opportunities to rebuild from a stronger base, and even reach a higher level of operation. Resilience does not just mean survival and recovery; it means thriving in a new reality (Brende and Sternfels, 2022) and operating proactively rather than reactively.

The field of education must be sensitive to individual, community and societal challenges both within and outside the system. Here, resilience refers to the ability to find solutions to these challenges, adapting to new situations by organising, planning and implementing educational processes.

Resource centres are core educational centres and/or institutions dedicated to providing support and consultancy to promote inclusion. A resource centre is a transformed special school, which redefines itself as a dynamic, multi-functional space that brings together both human and material resources. The transformation requires stakeholders from special settings to act as consultants for mainstream settings, providing schools with their knowledge and accumulated experience. It mobilises the knowledge and skills of the school for inclusion, valuing the knowledge and experiences of all (European Agency, 2019b).

Resources include human resources, material resources and financial resources and may also consider the amount of time dedicated to instruction. Human resources include, for example, leaders, teachers and their professional development. Material resources include educational materials and physical infrastructure (e.g. classrooms, libraries, school facilities). Financial resources/spending on education covers teacher/staff salaries and other education expenditure, such as building maintenance, transport and other operational costs. Time can include learning time, extra-curricular activities, etc. (adapted from OECD, 2013).

Resourcing refers to the act or practice of providing what is needed to complete a task.

‘Resource allocation has implications for equity in a school system and, as such, is an important consideration for policy makers’ (OECD, 2013, p. 94).

The ability to change the size and zoom of information according to the needs of the user/learner or the device used.

As a strategic planning device, school development planning is concerned with long-term goals (the mission) to be translated into planned and prioritized short-term objectives and improvement actions (development planning), after careful analysis of the strength [sic] and weaknesses of the school (audit) (UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning, no date).

The research literature defines school failure as the result of: early school leaving; low academic achievement; inability to participate fully in society; or poor well-being in adulthood (European Agency, 2019a). School failure is linked to a lack of inclusion and fairness in education and frequently manifests as school drop-out (OECD, 2012).

From a systemic perspective, school failure occurs when a system fails to provide fair and inclusive education services that lead to successful learning, engagement, wider participation in the community and transition to a stable adulthood. From an individual perspective, school failure is defined as the learner’s failure to either:

• obtain adequate qualifications when completing school;
• develop a minimum level of positive behaviour/knowledge/skills and advance to the next grade while at school – which can, in extreme cases, lead to school drop-out (European Agency, 2019a).

This refers to all those in key leadership roles in schools and learning communities. Such leaders may also be referred to as headteachers, school directors or principals. There are various stages of school leadership, including teacher, middle and senior leadership. In this role, they focus on enlisting and guiding the talents and energies of teachers, learners and parents to achieve common educational aims.

Leading a school involves both leadership and management. It is important to acknowledge that school leaders need a balance of these two processes. Leadership is focused on values, vision and the future, whereas management is concerned with making the present work (West-Burnham and Harris, 2015) (European Agency, 2020, p. 42).

A software program designed to give access from a computer, tablet, mobile or other digital device by reading the presented information with the use of a synthetic voice. In addition to reading text, a screen reader also allows a user/learner to navigate and interact with the content using their voice. For Braille users, a screen reader can also supply the information in Braille.

A preliminary process for identifying learners who may be at risk of future difficulty in a particular area and who therefore may be a priority for intervention. Screening is intended for all learners and so the measures/tests used are usually inexpensive, quick and easy to administer, and easy to interpret. Screening is often the first step to further, more detailed assessment (diagnostic tests, etc.).

‘Connected with the meaning of words and sentences’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries). When giving information, this term stresses the need to provide a meaningful structure.

A multi-faceted concept including the dimensions of material conditions such as employment, income, health, housing and education; social order and respect for others; relationships between individuals and communities; inclusion in society and equal access to opportunities/life chances. The promotion of social cohesion is intended to build more inclusive societies by giving everyone the chance to have access to fundamental rights and employment, to enjoy the benefits of economic growth with equity and social justice and thereby play a full role in society (UNESCO IITE/European Agency, 2011, pp. 102–103).

Social Exclusion … broadly describes how group(s) of people are excluded from the normal activities of their society, in multiple ways. It is multidimensional, with multiple deprivations reinforcing each other. Lack of power is at the root of every type of exclusion and there is a process of exclusion and agency involved. It concerns groups rather than individuals, and is relative: dependent on a given society’s norms (UNESCO Inclusive Policy Lab, 2017).

Providing people with relevant skills, competences and knowledge drives innovation and growth and promotes personal fulfilment and well-being. It is the best means of preventing individuals from becoming unemployed, thus reducing the risk of poverty and social exclusion (Council of the European Union, 2016).

A process which ensures that those at risk of poverty and social exclusion gain the opportunities and resources necessary to participate fully in economic, social and cultural life and to enjoy a standard of living and well-being that is considered normal in the society in which they live. Social inclusion also ensures that vulnerable groups and persons have greater participation in decision making which affects their lives and access to their fundamental rights (European Union, 2019, p. 9).

In every country, some groups confront barriers that prevent them from fully participating in political, economic, and social life. These groups may be excluded not only through legal systems, land, and labor markets, but also discriminatory or stigmatizing attitudes, beliefs, or perceptions. Disadvantage is often based on social identity, which may be across dimensions of gender, age, location, occupation, race, ethnicity, religion, citizenship status, disability, and sexual orientation and gender identity (SOGI), among other factors. This kind of social exclusion robs individuals of dignity, security, and the opportunity to lead a better life. Unless the root causes of structural exclusion and discrimination are addressed, it will be challenging to support sustainable inclusive growth and rapid poverty reduction (World Bank, no date).

Social responsibility refers to ‘the obligation of an organization’s management towards the welfare and interests of the society in which it operates’ (Business Dictionary, no date).

A school or unit providing some form of specialist provision and/or support, away from local community friends and peers, maintained/provided by the relevant educational authorities (municipality, local or regional educational provider from the public or private sector, working with/for the ministry responsible for national education) (European Agency, 2021a, p. 10).

Special classes/units refer to some form of partial integration arrangements for some learners with SEN [special educational needs] within mainstream schools. These are often seen as a form of ‘special school’ within the mainstream school, particularly when they are called ‘special units’. Enrolment is often similar to that for special schools. It is evident that, in these cases, special units act as a resource directed mainly to the learners and not the school staff (European Agency, 2019b, p. 22).

(See also ‘Special (pre-) school / unit’)

SEN is a construct that countries usually define within their legislation. These definitions are then used to identify, assess and make provision for learners with different needs – including recognised disabilities – in different ways (Watkins, Ebersold and Lénárt, 2014). Special or ‘additional’ needs should not be seen as the result of ‘in-child’ factors, but rather ‘a discrepancy between what a system of schooling ordinarily provides and what the child needs to support their learning’ (Rouse, 2008, p. 6, cited by Soriano, Watkins and Ebersold, 2017, p. 22).

(See also ‘Official decision / statement of special educational needs (SEN)’)

The International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) defines special needs education as:

Education designed to facilitate learning by individuals who, for a wide variety of reasons, require additional support and adaptive pedagogical methods in order to participate and meet learning objectives in an education programme. Reasons may include (but are not limited to) disadvantages in physical, behavioural, intellectual, emotional and social capacities. Education programmes in special needs education may follow a similar curriculum as that offered in the parallel regular education system, but they take individual needs into account by providing specific resources (e.g. specially-trained personnel, equipment or space) and, if appropriate, modified educational content or learning objectives. These programmes can be offered to individual students within already-existing education programmes or as a separate class in the same or separate educational institutions (UNESCO/UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2012, p. 83).

Specialist / multi-disciplinary assessment teams are teams of professionals from different specialisms (educational, psychological, social, health, etc.). They assess a learner in different ways and then contribute to a broader, multi-disciplinary assessment information that will inform decisions about their future learning.

Professional learning route preparing teachers or other educators for a learner and teacher support role in inclusion.

This covers different types of specialist provision services, specifically:

• in-school provision, which ensures assistance to learners who are in mainstream classrooms, or partially out of mainstream classrooms (special classes, units, programmes, inclusion classes, and parallel support, i.e. one-to-one provision by specialised staff);
• external provision to schools aiming to empower them to act inclusively (resource centres, networks of special schools, networks of mainstream and special schools);
• external provision to schools through individualised support to learners enrolled in mainstream settings (physiotherapists, speech therapists) with the support of education, health or welfare authorities;
• external provision to learners, such as special schools dedicated to learners requiring intensive support, under the responsibility of education, health or welfare authorities (European Agency, 2019b, p. 10).

(See also ‘External specialist provision’)

Specially-trained personnel who work for the identification/assessment, education and effective care of learners with additional support needs. These may include the following professionals: special education co‑ordinators, special educators (special education teachers), learning support assistants (teaching assistants), educational psychologists, occupational therapists, speech and language therapists (speech pathologists), school assistants (care assistants/school escorts), social workers, etc.

‘Specialist teachers’ refers to all educational professionals collaborating directly with others to enhance the learning and participation of learners at risk of exclusion, marginalisation or drop-out and learners identified as having special educational needs. Specialist teachers have qualifications in education with a specialisation in special and/or inclusive education.

This refers to policy-makers, education professionals, school leaders, learners/peers, families and the members of the community (European Agency, 2019b).

Standardised assessment is the collection of quantifiable information about a pupil’s achievement that relates to a fixed test with a scale of possible scores. The test and scoring scales are standardised by trialling them with a large number of pupils so they are reliable (i.e. will produce the same results consistently over time) and valid (i.e. measure what they are supposed to).

Standards are statements of desired outcomes for the education system, which are agreed upon by key stakeholders.

This ‘usually refers to decision-making that takes into account the actions and reactions of other … agents. Its essential feature is the recognition of the direct interdependence between one’s behaviour and that of others’ (Encyclopedia.com).

Within the education field, financing mechanisms may incentivise unwanted strategic behaviour. For example, ‘financial constraints may lead to strategic behaviour where schools directly link the support learners may need with an official decision’ (European Agency, 2022e, p. 12). ‘Similarly, parents may also demonstrate strategic behaviour that is not in line with the policy’ (Meijer, 1999, p. 20). ‘These forms of strategic behaviour may result in less inclusion, more labelling and rising costs’ (ibid., p. 12).

‘A plan that is intended to achieve a particular purpose’; ‘The process of planning something or putting a plan into operation’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

Text information which has been organised with an established reading order and headings using software functions such as applying styles or tagging.

Are intended for audiences that do not understand the language used in a dialogue.

Summative assessment is a ‘one-off’ used to get a snapshot of a pupil’s level of achievement in relation to a programme of study. Usually, summative assessment is carried out at the end of a period of time, or the end of a programme of study. It is frequently quantitative and is often associated with a mark or grade that provides a comparison of the pupil’s achievement in relation to other pupils. The term ‘product-oriented’ assessment is often linked to summative assessment.

Ability to keep going/maintain. Projects are more likely to be sustainable if they have: clear goals, shared with all participants; sound financial arrangements; effective marketing strategies; plans for changes in personnel; planned links with existing work.

‘That can continue or be continued for a long time’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

The financial, human and material resources used in education, e.g. the characteristics of learners, educators, curricula, textbooks, facilities, equipment and financial resources.

The ultimate or eventual effects of education, e.g. increased earnings, employment, contribution to productivity, improved health and other non-monetary outcomes.

A systemic approach to school development incorporates the concept of schools as learning organisations (Kinsella and Senior, 2008). This approach aims to identify and overcome institutional barriers at all levels that might cause school failure. It ‘focuses on developing an inclusive system where all learners receive a high-quality education (including those at risk of failure and most vulnerable to exclusion)’.

This approach ‘leads to raised achievement and successful completion of compulsory education. It also goes beyond school organisation, aiming to address inequity to ensure wider community participation and transition to stable adulthood’ (European Agency, 2019c, p. 14).

‘Systems of support’ refers to systems that build the capacity of mainstream schools, rather than to the process of distributing additional resources. They help to make mainstream schools more accessible and capable of meeting the requirements of all learners.

Process which embeds information about the reading order, flow and organisational structure within an electronic document.

‘Having a natural ability to do something well’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries). This is usually in a specific field such as athletic, creative or aesthetic areas.

(See also ‘Highly able / gifted’)

Refers to clear objectives and a shared understanding of professional learning for inclusion. It does not just list what teachers should know, be or do. Rather, it reflects a holistic and dynamic view of the capability, readiness, engagement, responsibility, effectiveness and skill of individual teachers and teacher teams to meet the demands of diverse classrooms and schools.

Teacher professional learning (TPL) covers initial teacher education and continuing professional development, including induction and in-school learning opportunities.

TPL for inclusion involves reflective practice and personal competence development of all teachers, specialists and support staff involved in inclusive education, in the areas of valuing learner difference, learner support and working with others, in line with the Agency’s Profile of Inclusive Teachers (European Agency, 2012c).

Technology is ‘often used as another word for ICT, although strictly speaking “technology” can mean almost any type of tool or applied knowledge. For example, pencil and paper, slates, blackboards and whiteboards are all types of writing technology’ (UNESCO and Microsoft, 2011, p. 92).

The terms of reference is ‘the document that details the assignment and spells out the requirements and expectations of those commissioning or managing the evaluation’ (World Bank Group, 2015, p. 20).

This refers to ‘variations in the way schools operate within a country’. In implementing inclusive education, ‘there is a need to reduce inequalities between regions (e.g. between urban and rural areas) and to increase consistency among schools, municipalities and regions’ (European Agency, 2019b, p. 37).

Carrying out an assessment exercise designed to measure the learner’s acquired knowledge and skills. Tests may be set and marked by the teacher or by an external agency. (Adapted from UNESCO-IBE, Glossary of Curriculum Terminology).

(See also ‘Summative assessment’; ‘Standardised assessment’)

A theory of action is ‘focused on a specific pathway and an organization’s role in achieving a particular change’. It maps out ‘in a logical order’ what stakeholders ‘think needs to happen’ to achieve ‘long-term, sustainable change in communities’ (Borgman-Arboleda, 2013, p. 1).

‘A guiding framework for all stages of thinking, action and sense-making’ when intervening intentionally in social change processes (van Es, Guijt and Vogel, 2015, p. 12).

Theory of change is both a process and an output (Vogel, 2012): the process of working out the theory, often in group sessions led by a capable facilitator (thinking and doing theory of change analysis), and the output of that process (a document of how and why a goal will be reached).This differs from change theory, which is: ‘Theoretical and empirically grounded knowledge about how change occurs that goes beyond’ one project (Reinholz and Andrews, 2020, p. 1).

Throughput funding is ‘based on the functions or tasks that have to be undertaken or developed. It is not based on needs, but rather on the services provided by a school, municipality or region’. Finances are allocated on the condition that particular services will be developed or maintained. ‘Schools, municipalities or regions are equally treated: funds are based on total enrolment or on other population indicators’. Of course, certain output conditions can be included in this model, but funding itself is not based on outputs (or inputs) (Meijer, 1999, p. 152).

Transformative leadership emphasises vision-setting and inspiration. It focuses on establishing structures and cultures that enhance the quality of teaching and learning, setting direction, developing people and (re)designing the organisation (Day, Gu and Sammons, 2016). Transformative school leadership is traditionally associated with the ability to facilitate change and innovation by impacting on people and cultures within schools (Navickaitė, 2013) (European Agency, 2020, p. 43).

Truancy occurs when a learner is absent from school or class for non-legitimate reasons. While absenteeism refers to absences from school for any reason, truancy refers to unexcused or unjustified absenteeism (see UNICEF and UIS, 2016, p. 23).

The MDGs are eight goals to be achieved by 2015 that respond to the world’s main development challenges. The MDGs are drawn from the actions and targets contained in the Millennium Declaration that was adopted by 189 nations and signed by 147 heads of state and governments during the United Nations Millennium Summit in September 2000.

A document that aims to assist countries in strengthening the focus on inclusion in their strategies and plans for education. The document was accepted in the UNESCO 48th International Conference on Education. See UNESCO, 2009.

The CRPD and its Optional Protocol were adopted on 13 December 2006 and entered into force on 3 May 2008. The CRPD marks a ‘paradigm shift’ in attitudes and approaches to persons with disabilities, viewing people with disabilities as ‘subjects’ with rights, who are capable of claiming those rights and making decisions for their lives based on their free and informed consent as well as being active members of society. It also represents a paradigm shift from a ‘medical’ model, which views the impairments as the problem, towards a ‘social’ model, which perceives the problem as the barriers which have been constructed by societies.

‘Design of products, environments, programmes and services to be usable by all to the greatest extent possible, with no need for adaptation or specialised design’ (UNESCO, 2020a, p. 420).

The Center for Universal Design at North Carolina State University conceived and developed the seven principles of Universal Design: equitable use, flexibility in use, simple and intuitive use, perceptible information, tolerance for error, low physical effort, and size and space for approach and use. It is copyrighted material (The Center for Universal Design, 1997).

This stems from the general term ‘universal design’. However, it focuses on improving and optimising teaching and learning for all to ensure learners’ success and well-being. The Centre for Applied Special Technology owns the copyright for the term and the three principles for curriculum development based on a UDL approach:

1. Provide information through multiple means of representation (present information and content in different ways)
2. Provide multiple means of action and expression (differentiate the ways that learners can express what they know)
3. Provide multiple means of engagement (stimulate interest and motivation for learning).

UDL provides a blueprint for creating instructional goals, methods, materials and assessments that work for everyone. It does not involve a single, one-size-fits-all solution, but rather flexible approaches that can be customised and adjusted to individual needs. (Refer to Centre for Applied Special Technology, no date).

Universal Design for Learning is an approach to addressing the diversity of learner needs by suggesting flexible goals, methods, materials, and assessment processes that support educators to meet varied needs. Curricula created using UDL are designed from the outset to meet the needs of all learners. A UDL framework incorporates flexible design of learning situations with customizable options, which allow all learners to progress from their own, individual starting points. (Refer to Centre for Applied Special Technology, no date).

‘Extent to which a product can be used by specified users to achieve specified goals with effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction in a specified context of use’ (International Organization for Standardization, 1998).

A design approach that focuses on making systems and tools usable. The goal is a high degree of usability.

The quality of being defensible, well-grounded or sound. In research, validity is the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure.

Refers to what is assessed and how well this corresponds with the behaviour or construct to be assessed. In the case of ‘site validity’ it involves assessments that intend to assess the range of skills and knowledge that have been made available to learners in the classroom context or site. High ‘system validity’ involves assessments that intend to assess an often narrower range of skills and knowledge, deemed essential by the particular government body or system. Current validity theorising incorporates concerns about fairness and bias, and reflects similar understandings of the social basis of assessment. Validity is not simply the way in which a test functions, but depends on what it is used for and the interpretation and social consequences of the results. Thus, an essential part of validity is the concern with whether the inferences made from the results of an assessment are fair to all those who were assessed (Wyatt-Smith & Joy Cumming, 2009 in UNESCO-IBE, Glossary of Curriculum Terminology).

‘A VLE, or learning platform, is an online system that allows teachers and trainers to share educational materials and communicate with their learners via the web. Usually with built in tools to create engaging learning content’ (Electronic Platform for Adult Learning in Europe, 2015).

‘Voices’ means the values, opinions, beliefs, views and perspectives of learners and their families. It also refers to the degree to which these are considered, included, listened to and acted upon when important decisions that affect their lives are being made at local (school), regional (district) or national level. The term ‘voices’ (as opposed to ‘voice’) implies that learners and families are not considered as homogenous groups, but as unique individuals who are treated as equal and valuable members of the discussions.

According to Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 4, target 4.5 on inclusion and equity:

All people, irrespective of sex, age, race, colour, ethnicity, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property or birth, as well as persons with disabilities, migrants, indigenous peoples, and children and youth, especially those in vulnerable situations or other status, should have access to inclusive, equitable quality education and lifelong learning opportunities. Vulnerable groups that require particular attention and targeted strategies include persons with disabilities, indigenous peoples, ethnic minorities and the poor (SDG 4 High-Level Steering Committee Secretariat, no date).

Vulnerabilities have a dynamic dimension and can vary by place (Ainscow, 2005). Vulnerabilities can refer to poverty, ethnicity, disability and remoteness.

‘… many types of vulnerability are not outwardly apparent … making it impossible to distinguish neatly between students with and without disabilities or special needs’ (UNESCO, 2020a, p. 66).

Many countries identify specific groups as vulnerable in constitutions, social inclusion legislation, education legislation or documents directly related to inclusive education. The group most identified is people with disabilities, but women and girls, rural or remote populations and the poor are also commonly recognized. Few countries link recognition of specific groups with a mandate to collect data on their inclusion in education, however (UNESCO, 2020a, p. 67).

‘Characteristics that expose individuals to risk do not affect everybody the same way. For instance, life at the intersections of disability with race, class, gender, sexual orientation and gender identity expression is more than the sum of each vulnerability’ (UNESCO, 2020a, p. 73).

Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) is developed through the W3C process in cooperation with individuals and organizations around the world, with a goal of providing a single shared standard for web content accessibility that meets the needs of individuals, organizations, and governments internationally (World Wide Web Consortium – W3C, 2012).

Web 2.0 refers to:

… web applications that facilitate interactive information sharing, interoperability, user-centred design, and collaboration on the World Wide Web. A Web 2.0 site gives its users the free choice to interact or collaborate with each other in a social media dialogue as creators of user-generated content in a virtual community, in contrast to websites where users (consumers) are limited to the passive viewing of content that was created for them. Examples of Web 2.0 include social-networking sites, blogs, wikis, video-sharing sites, hosted services, web applications … (Wikipedia, 2010).

The term ‘Web 2.0’ can be traced back to Tom O’Reilly and the O’Reilly Media Conference in 2004.

Web-based learning refers to the type of learning that uses the Internet as an instructional delivery tool to carry out various learning activities. It can take the form of (1) a pure online learning in which the curriculum and learning are implemented online without face-to-face meeting between the instructor and the students, or (2) a hybrid in which the instructor meets the students half of the time online and half of the time in the classroom, depending on the needs and requirement of the curriculum. Web-based learning can be integrated into a curriculum that turns into a full-blown course or as a supplement to traditional courses (Zheng, 2008).

The notion of well-being incorporates a person’s quality of life. It is, at the same time, a multidimensional concept (OECD, 2020b) with a social and economic dimension, a psychological and mental health dimension, a philosophical dimension and an educational dimension (Mashford-Scott, Church and Taylor, 2012). It includes a sociological focus on external living conditions, a psychological and public health focus on person-related indicators, such as self-efficacy or self-esteem, and a focus on subjective experiences and subjective feelings of happiness or satisfaction.

Well-being is close to the notion of ‘good life’, which refers to a person’s quality of life, and not the quantity of skills they have acquired. It is about enjoying ‘being’, judged by what it brings in the life of others, and the capacity to derive joy from life, which everyone can achieve (Kittay, 2019).

Well-being depends on culture, historical circumstances, socio-economic class and other variables, which illustrate the differences in how well-being is conceived. The notion of well-being has been reshaped during the COVID-19 pandemic in relation to mental and emotional health, among other things.

In a rights-based approach, children can be active participants in defining their well-being and the ways to achieve it (European Agency, 2021b, p. 103).

(See also ‘Mental health’)

A whole-school approach is one that involves all members of a school community (i.e. learners, staff, parents and carers, community members) and seeks to include all areas of school life. It recognises that real learning occurs both through the ‘formal’ curriculum and through the ‘hidden’ curriculum and learners’ experience of life in school and community.

W3C is:

… an international community where Member organizations, a full-time staff, and the public work together to develop Web standards. Led by Web inventor and Director Tim Berners-Lee and CEO Jeffrey Jaffe, W3C’s mission is to lead the Web to its full potential (World Wide Web Consortium, 2015).