Community-based resources refer to extra-curricular activities, after-school programmes, intervention-based programmes and other external support services in the community that target specific learners, their families and/or teachers. They might include childcare facilities/services, counselling, mental healthcare, other health services and therapeutic/educational interventions (e.g. speech and language therapy), career support services, special services, etc. (European Agency, 2019a).

‘Early tracking means the early streaming of pupils by abilities into different types of provision or school; this includes placing children into separate schools’ (European Agency, 2018a, p. 34). This is considered a segregation practice that increases inequality in learner outcomes, especially when it occurs before age 13 (INCLUD-ED, 2009). Therefore, it is suggested that support structures avoid early tracking into vocational or academic routes (European Agency, 2019a).

Grade repetition or retention refers to the traditional practice of holding learners back to repeat school years. ‘Grade repetition is costly and ineffective in raising educational outcomes’ (OECD, 2012, p. 10). ‘The extensive use of grade retention means holding pupils back to repeat school years, instead of providing flexible individual support’ (European Agency, 2018a, p. 34).

Inclusion is both a principle and a process: ‘Inclusion and equity in and through education is the cornerstone of a transformative education agenda […] No education target should be considered met unless met by all’ (World Education Forum, 2015, p. 2).

It can be seen as: ‘A process consisting of actions and practices that embrace diversity and build a sense of belonging, rooted in the belief that every person has value and potential and should be respected’ (UNESCO, 2020a, p. 419).

The term was often associated with disability, but now extends to wider groups as ‘a response to increasingly complex and diverse societies. It treats diversity as an asset which helps prepare individuals for life and active citizenship in increasingly complex, demanding, multi-cultural and integrated societies’ (Soriano, Watkins and Ebersold, 2017, p. 7).

‘An education that promotes mutual respect and value for all persons and builds educational environments in which the approach to learning, the institutional culture and the curriculum reflect the value of diversity’ (UNESCO, 2020a, p. 420).

The Agency views inclusive education as ‘a systemic approach to providing high quality education in mainstream schools that effectively meets the academic and social learning needs of all the learners from the school’s local community’ (European Agency, 2015, p. 2).

Inclusive education supposes a real change at both policy and practice levels regarding education. Learners are placed at the centre of a system that needs to be able to recognise, accept and respond to learner diversity. Inclusive education aims to respond to the principles of efficiency, equality and equity, where diversity is perceived as an asset. Learners also need to be prepared to engage in society, to access meaningful citizenship and to acknowledge the values of human rights, freedom, tolerance and non-discrimination (Soriano, Watkins and Ebersold, 2017, p. 6).

The literature on national-level work shows that different terms are used across and within countries to refer to out-of-school: not enrolled, drop-out, early school leavers and not in education, employment or training (NEET) are some, but not all, in evidence. In addition, there is ambiguity around the notion of absenteeism. A learner’s transition from being ‘absent from school’ to formally ‘dropping out’ is rarely clearly defined in research or data collection.

Within work linked to Sustainable Development Goal 4, UNESCO has developed the following working definitions for:

• Out-of-school children: ‘Children in the official primary school age range who are not enrolled in either primary or secondary school’.
• Out-of-school adolescents and youth: ‘Those of lower or upper secondary school age who are not enrolled in primary, secondary, post-secondary non-tertiary or tertiary education’ (UNESCO, 2018, p. 356).

Being considered out-of-school is most often linked to a learner’s age in relation to compulsory education, and their access to, enrolment in and participation in some form of educational provision.

The COVID-19 crisis in education will probably reshape the notions of ‘out of school’ and ‘drop out’. School closures, moves towards distance and blended teaching and learning methods and the rise in home schooling have implications for access to education and access to an inclusive education for a growing number of learners.

The research literature defines school failure as the result of: early school leaving; low academic achievement; inability to participate fully in society; or poor well-being in adulthood (European Agency, 2019a). School failure is linked to a lack of inclusion and fairness in education and frequently manifests as school drop-out (OECD, 2012).

From a systemic perspective, school failure occurs when a system fails to provide fair and inclusive education services that lead to successful learning, engagement, wider participation in the community and transition to a stable adulthood. From an individual perspective, school failure is defined as the learner’s failure to either:

• obtain adequate qualifications when completing school;
• develop a minimum level of positive behaviour/knowledge/skills and advance to the next grade while at school – which can, in extreme cases, lead to school drop-out (European Agency, 2019a).

A systemic approach to school development incorporates the concept of schools as learning organisations (Kinsella and Senior, 2008). This approach aims to identify and overcome institutional barriers at all levels that might cause school failure. It ‘focuses on developing an inclusive system where all learners receive a high-quality education (including those at risk of failure and most vulnerable to exclusion)’.

This approach ‘leads to raised achievement and successful completion of compulsory education. It also goes beyond school organisation, aiming to address inequity to ensure wider community participation and transition to stable adulthood’ (European Agency, 2019c, p. 14).