‘Programmes at ISCED level 3, or upper secondary education, are typically designed to complete secondary education in preparation for tertiary education or provide skills relevant to employment, or both’ (UNESCO/UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2012, p. 37).

The interconnected nature of all social categorisations – when considering the needs of all learners (Nadan and Korbin, 2018).

According to the OECD, ‘the extent and degree of intersectionality of different forms of diversity with SEN [special educational needs] are not only restricted to binary interrelations; rather, various forms can coexist and interact’ (Brussino, 2020, p. 20).

These forms of diversity can include, for example: ‘gender, remoteness, wealth, disability, ethnicity, language, migration, displacement, incarceration, sexual orientation, gender identity and expression, religion and other beliefs and attitudes’ (UNESCO, 2020a, p. 4) or ‘national minorities and Indigenous peoples, and giftedness’ (Brussino, 2020, p. 63).

Key drivers are those conditions that are necessary to achieve the change/transformation necessary to support inclusive education. Key drivers may also force or highlight the need for change. For example, a school’s organisational flexibility is a key driver for improving the way specialists collaborate with mainstream teachers. A commitment to resources and excellence for all are key drivers for inclusive education.

‘Knowledge societies contribute to the well-being of individuals and communities, and encompass social, ethical and political dimensions’ (United Nations University, 2016, p. 9).

‘Knowledge societies must build on four pillars: freedom of expression; universal access to information and knowledge; respect for cultural and linguistic diversity; and quality education for all’ (UNESCO, 2021a).

Leadership has been interpreted in different ways, but at the core it is found in social relationships with social goals; it is defined as a process of providing direction and applying influence (Lumby and Coleman, 2016). It has to do with managing people’s emotions, thoughts and actions decisively in order to influence others towards a preferred direction (Diamond and Spillane, 2016) (European Agency, 2018c, p. 8).

Effective continua of support in inclusive education systems encompass personalised approaches to learning that engage all learners and support their active participation in the learning process. This involves developing learner-centred curricula and assessment frameworks; flexible training and continuous professional development opportunities for all educators, school leaders and decision-makers; and coherent governance processes at all system levels (Watkins, 2017).

Learners vulnerable to exclusion encompasses all learners whose educational experience is ‘impacted upon by a number of pressures, forces, levers, discriminations and disadvantages’ (European Agency, 2021b, p. 6). These learners may or may not fall into categories of special needs and a special type of provision may or may not be available to support them (European Agency, 2022c, p. 34).

‘Learners with additional support needs’ refers to learners from pre-primary up to higher education and lifelong learning who experience barriers to learning resulting from learner-environment interaction.

Good quality learning and teaching will meet a range of diverse needs without additional support. However, some learners will need additional support, different resources or adapted pedagogical approaches to ensure they gain the most benefit from their education.

There are many reasons why learners may need additional support (either short- or long-term) to help them learn. Such needs may be due to:

• disability or health;
• learning environment;
• family circumstances;
• social and emotional factors.

Learners with disabilities may have a limitation in one or multiple functional domains (e.g. walking, seeing), on a spectrum from minimal to severe. The limitation arises from the interaction between a person’s intrinsic capacity and environmental and personal factors that hinder their full, effective participation in society on an equal basis with others.

Learners with special educational needs may have a ‘learning difficulty and/or disability that may require special education support. Countries define these needs differently’ (UNESCO, 2020a, p. 420).

‘Collaborations of stakeholders around clusters of schools involving both school and community personnel, together with researchers, local area leaders and policy-makers’ (European Agency, 2015e, p. 7).

Such communities share and critically reflect on practice in an on-going process that promotes further learning. Parents and community stakeholders play an important role in the learning and support network around schools, developing social capital.

Features of learning communities include:

• Shared values and vision
• Collective responsibility for and focus on learning and personal growth of learners/other stakeholders
• Respectful relationships that involve mutual trust and support
• ‘Shared’ authority
• Collaboration with external partners (European Agency, 2015e).

A learning platform is an integrated set of interactive online services that provide teachers, learners, parents and others involved in education with information, tools and resources to support and enhance educational delivery and management. It is not a single ‘off the shelf’ product but a collection of tools and services designed to support teaching, learning, management and administration (Jewitt, Hadjithoma-Garstka, Clark, Banaji and Selwyn, 2010, p. 4).

Along with the individual education plan, learning support assistants (LSAs) are the most used form of support for learners with disabilities/other additional support needs. They are also called ‘teaching assistants’, ‘special needs assistants’ or ‘paraprofessionals’. Roles, responsibilities, training and qualifications vary across countries, but research now indicates that LSAs should work to support teachers and all learners in class to avoid stigma and reduce possible dependency.

Lesson study is a Japanese model of teacher-led research, in which a triad of teachers work together to target an identified area for development in their pupils’ learning. Using existing evidence, participants collaboratively research, plan, teach and observe a series of lessons, using on-going discussion, reflection and expert input to track and refine their interventions (Teacher Development Trust Network, no date).

Lifelong learning encompasses all learning activities undertaken throughout life with the aim of improving knowledge, skills and competences, within personal, civic, social or employment-related perspectives. The intention or aim to learn is the critical point that distinguishes these activities from non-learning activities, such as cultural or sporting activities (‘Lifelong learning’ in Eurostat, no date a).

Lifelong learning must cover learning from the pre-school age to that of post-retirement, including the entire spectrum of formal, non-formal and informal learning. … the principles in this context should be: the individual as the subject of learning, highlighting the importance of an authentic equality of opportunities, and quality in learning (Council of the European Union, 2002).

Authorities responsible for territorial units below regional level. Local authorities may comprise elected representatives or they may be administrative divisions of central authorities (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2014).