‘Something that can be measured and used as a standard that other things can be compared with’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

‘A systematic process of comparing the activities, processes and/or performance of a programme, organization, country, learner, etc. against a theoretical, political or existing reference with the aim of identifying ways to improve performance’ (CEDEFOP (2011) in UNESCO-IBE, Glossary of Curriculum Terminology).

Inclusion is both a principle and a process: ‘Inclusion and equity in and through education is the cornerstone of a transformative education agenda […] No education target should be considered met unless met by all’ (World Education Forum, 2015, p. 2).

It can be seen as: ‘A process consisting of actions and practices that embrace diversity and build a sense of belonging, rooted in the belief that every person has value and potential and should be respected’ (UNESCO, 2020a, p. 419).

The term was often associated with disability, but now extends to wider groups as ‘a response to increasingly complex and diverse societies. It treats diversity as an asset which helps prepare individuals for life and active citizenship in increasingly complex, demanding, multi-cultural and integrated societies’ (Soriano, Watkins and Ebersold, 2017, p. 7).

An indicator is defined as a parameter, or a value derived from a parameter, which aims to provide information about the state of a phenomenon. Indicators can provide a systemic approach to evaluation, useful for complex areas, such as education when longer-term outcomes are important and the work does not correspond to a straightforward input-output or linear model. Numbers or statistics are not necessarily required and indicators can highlight the relationship between different components. Indicators are a dynamic system with explicit values that will differ according to the cultural context and project elements.

‘Watching, checking something over a period of time to see how it develops, so that necessary changes can be made’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

The process of systematically tracking aspects of education/school ‘implementation, with a view toward data collection, accountability and/or enhancing effectiveness and/or quality’ (OECD, 2015, p. 235).

A monitoring framework should be designed to monitor quality at different levels (country, region, schools) and for different groups (school authorities, teachers, learners). It should ‘draw on a number of different tools and components to collect and organize data needed to monitor a system’s performance’. This includes tools at the school level for data on learners and teachers, ‘national education management information systems (EMIS), human resource or teacher management information systems for teacher recruitment and deployment, inspection and appraisal systems, and financial management systems’. The framework may also include system-level learner evaluations.

Monitoring may include compliance monitoring, diagnostic monitoring and performance monitoring, which may all co-exist within the system (UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning, 2021).

‘Something that a person, or an organisation produces. Information/results produced by a computer’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

‘Connected with what something is like or how good it is, rather than with how much of it there is’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

Qualitative research is an iterative process that aims to improve understanding by getting close to the phenomenon studied. It explores issues of ‘why’ and ‘how’ by analysing information, often in the form of words (e.g. notes from observations/interviews), pictures, videos or objects rather than statistics. This type of research involves interpreting events. It may be more subjective, producing data that is less readily generalised.

‘The practice of managing the way goods are produced or services are provided to make sure they are kept at a high standard’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

Quality assurance refers to the ‘policies, procedures and practices designed to achieve, maintain and enhance quality in inclusive education’. It also involves ‘how educational organisations account for their activities, accept responsibility for them and share information on their results openly and transparently’ (European Agency, 2018e, p. 17).

‘Connected with the amount or number of something rather than with how good it is’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

As opposed to qualitative research, quantitative research is concerned with analysis of numerical data.

The financial, human and material resources used in education, e.g. the characteristics of learners, educators, curricula, textbooks, facilities, equipment and financial resources.

The ultimate or eventual effects of education, e.g. increased earnings, employment, contribution to productivity, improved health and other non-monetary outcomes.