A theory of action is ‘focused on a specific pathway and an organization’s role in achieving a particular change’. It maps out ‘in a logical order’ what stakeholders ‘think needs to happen’ to achieve ‘long-term, sustainable change in communities’ (Borgman-Arboleda, 2013, p. 1).

‘A guiding framework for all stages of thinking, action and sense-making’ when intervening intentionally in social change processes (van Es, Guijt and Vogel, 2015, p. 12).

Theory of change is both a process and an output (Vogel, 2012): the process of working out the theory, often in group sessions led by a capable facilitator (thinking and doing theory of change analysis), and the output of that process (a document of how and why a goal will be reached).This differs from change theory, which is: ‘Theoretical and empirically grounded knowledge about how change occurs that goes beyond’ one project (Reinholz and Andrews, 2020, p. 1).

Throughput funding is ‘based on the functions or tasks that have to be undertaken or developed. It is not based on needs, but rather on the services provided by a school, municipality or region’. Finances are allocated on the condition that particular services will be developed or maintained. ‘Schools, municipalities or regions are equally treated: funds are based on total enrolment or on other population indicators’. Of course, certain output conditions can be included in this model, but funding itself is not based on outputs (or inputs) (Meijer, 1999, p. 152).

Transformative leadership emphasises vision-setting and inspiration. It focuses on establishing structures and cultures that enhance the quality of teaching and learning, setting direction, developing people and (re)designing the organisation (Day, Gu and Sammons, 2016). Transformative school leadership is traditionally associated with the ability to facilitate change and innovation by impacting on people and cultures within schools (Navickaitė, 2013) (European Agency, 2020, p. 43).

Truancy occurs when a learner is absent from school or class for non-legitimate reasons. While absenteeism refers to absences from school for any reason, truancy refers to unexcused or unjustified absenteeism (see UNICEF and UIS, 2016, p. 23).

The MDGs are eight goals to be achieved by 2015 that respond to the world’s main development challenges. The MDGs are drawn from the actions and targets contained in the Millennium Declaration that was adopted by 189 nations and signed by 147 heads of state and governments during the United Nations Millennium Summit in September 2000.

A document that aims to assist countries in strengthening the focus on inclusion in their strategies and plans for education. The document was accepted in the UNESCO 48th International Conference on Education. See UNESCO, 2009.

The CRPD and its Optional Protocol were adopted on 13 December 2006 and entered into force on 3 May 2008. The CRPD marks a ‘paradigm shift’ in attitudes and approaches to persons with disabilities, viewing people with disabilities as ‘subjects’ with rights, who are capable of claiming those rights and making decisions for their lives based on their free and informed consent as well as being active members of society. It also represents a paradigm shift from a ‘medical’ model, which views the impairments as the problem, towards a ‘social’ model, which perceives the problem as the barriers which have been constructed by societies.

‘Design of products, environments, programmes and services to be usable by all to the greatest extent possible, with no need for adaptation or specialised design’ (UNESCO, 2020a, p. 420).

The Center for Universal Design at North Carolina State University conceived and developed the seven principles of Universal Design: equitable use, flexibility in use, simple and intuitive use, perceptible information, tolerance for error, low physical effort, and size and space for approach and use. It is copyrighted material (The Center for Universal Design, 1997).

This stems from the general term ‘universal design’. However, it focuses on improving and optimising teaching and learning for all to ensure learners’ success and well-being. The Centre for Applied Special Technology owns the copyright for the term and the three principles for curriculum development based on a UDL approach:

1. Provide information through multiple means of representation (present information and content in different ways)
2. Provide multiple means of action and expression (differentiate the ways that learners can express what they know)
3. Provide multiple means of engagement (stimulate interest and motivation for learning).

UDL provides a blueprint for creating instructional goals, methods, materials and assessments that work for everyone. It does not involve a single, one-size-fits-all solution, but rather flexible approaches that can be customised and adjusted to individual needs. (Refer to Centre for Applied Special Technology, no date).

Universal Design for Learning is an approach to addressing the diversity of learner needs by suggesting flexible goals, methods, materials, and assessment processes that support educators to meet varied needs. Curricula created using UDL are designed from the outset to meet the needs of all learners. A UDL framework incorporates flexible design of learning situations with customizable options, which allow all learners to progress from their own, individual starting points. (Refer to Centre for Applied Special Technology, no date).

‘Extent to which a product can be used by specified users to achieve specified goals with effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction in a specified context of use’ (International Organization for Standardization, 1998).

A design approach that focuses on making systems and tools usable. The goal is a high degree of usability.

The quality of being defensible, well-grounded or sound. In research, validity is the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure.

Refers to what is assessed and how well this corresponds with the behaviour or construct to be assessed. In the case of ‘site validity’ it involves assessments that intend to assess the range of skills and knowledge that have been made available to learners in the classroom context or site. High ‘system validity’ involves assessments that intend to assess an often narrower range of skills and knowledge, deemed essential by the particular government body or system. Current validity theorising incorporates concerns about fairness and bias, and reflects similar understandings of the social basis of assessment. Validity is not simply the way in which a test functions, but depends on what it is used for and the interpretation and social consequences of the results. Thus, an essential part of validity is the concern with whether the inferences made from the results of an assessment are fair to all those who were assessed (Wyatt-Smith & Joy Cumming, 2009 in UNESCO-IBE, Glossary of Curriculum Terminology).

‘A VLE, or learning platform, is an online system that allows teachers and trainers to share educational materials and communicate with their learners via the web. Usually with built in tools to create engaging learning content’ (Electronic Platform for Adult Learning in Europe, 2015).

‘Voices’ means the values, opinions, beliefs, views and perspectives of learners and their families. It also refers to the degree to which these are considered, included, listened to and acted upon when important decisions that affect their lives are being made at local (school), regional (district) or national level. The term ‘voices’ (as opposed to ‘voice’) implies that learners and families are not considered as homogenous groups, but as unique individuals who are treated as equal and valuable members of the discussions.