There is no universally agreed definition, as identification of this group of learners is linked to context. In every school, there is likely to be learners who require extended educational opportunities.

High ability/giftedness is currently defined in terms of the following traits:

— above-average intellectual ability, with regard to both general and specific skills. Although the traditional yardstick has been the presence of an intelligence quotient of over 130 (100 being the average), in recent years this criterion has been extended and loosened to include the assessment of other equally important indicators:

— high dedication and commitment to tasks: perseverance, interest, resilience, self-confidence, etc.

— high levels of creativity, flexibility and originality in asking questions, responding to and solving problems and difficulties that arise (European Economic and Social Committee, 2013).

(See also ‘Talented’)

When a child’s education is provided in their home environment and not at a school or other organisation. There may be a number of reasons for the provision of home schooling, including (but not limited to) parental choice and the actual or perceived lack of specific provision and/or facilities within schools (European Agency, 2021a, p. 10).

A test of the likely effects of new policies, measuring and assessing their early outcomes.

‘Something that encourages you to do something’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

Within the education field, financing and/or funding mechanisms may be incentives or disincentives to inclusive education. Such mechanisms may also act as incentives for unwanted (so-called) strategic behaviours, such as the over-referral of learners for official labels of special needs that are associated with funding.

Inclusion is both a principle and a process: ‘Inclusion and equity in and through education is the cornerstone of a transformative education agenda […] No education target should be considered met unless met by all’ (World Education Forum, 2015, p. 2).

It can be seen as: ‘A process consisting of actions and practices that embrace diversity and build a sense of belonging, rooted in the belief that every person has value and potential and should be respected’ (UNESCO, 2020a, p. 419).

The term was often associated with disability, but now extends to wider groups as ‘a response to increasingly complex and diverse societies. It treats diversity as an asset which helps prepare individuals for life and active citizenship in increasingly complex, demanding, multi-cultural and integrated societies’ (Soriano, Watkins and Ebersold, 2017, p. 7).

Inclusive assessment refers to assessment that ‘takes into account the needs of all learners, ensuring that they all take part in the assessment procedures and that the learning activities planned as a result are appropriate to each individual’ (Kefallinou and Donnelly, 2016, p. 210). Inclusive assessment is not a new or different set of techniques, but a different way of using assessment to support teaching and learning for all learners.

(See also ‘Universal design for learning’)

Curriculum which takes into consideration and caters for the diverse needs, previous experiences, interests and personal characteristics of all learners. It attempts to ensure that all students are part of the shared learning experiences of the classroom and that equal opportunities are provided regardless of learner differences (UNESCO-IBE, Glossary of Curriculum Terminology).

The Agency considers Inclusive Digital Education as digital transformation that goes far beyond applying suitably designed digital technologies in education. Inclusive digital education involves all education system levels – from the individual, to the educational institution, to the regional or national level. In inclusive education systems, this entails addressing inclusion, exclusion, digitalisation and the digital divide as interconnected and inter-dependent cross-cutting issues. This is vital if digital education is not just to be implemented for some, but is to be permanently anchored in the education system’s structures to foster resilient education systems that provide equitable education opportunities for all learners (European Agency, 2022b, p. 8).

‘An education that promotes mutual respect and value for all persons and builds educational environments in which the approach to learning, the institutional culture and the curriculum reflect the value of diversity’ (UNESCO, 2020a, p. 420).

The Agency views inclusive education as ‘a systemic approach to providing high quality education in mainstream schools that effectively meets the academic and social learning needs of all the learners from the school’s local community’ (European Agency, 2015, p. 2).

Inclusive education supposes a real change at both policy and practice levels regarding education. Learners are placed at the centre of a system that needs to be able to recognise, accept and respond to learner diversity. Inclusive education aims to respond to the principles of efficiency, equality and equity, where diversity is perceived as an asset. Learners also need to be prepared to engage in society, to access meaningful citizenship and to acknowledge the values of human rights, freedom, tolerance and non-discrimination (Soriano, Watkins and Ebersold, 2017, p. 6).

‘An inclusive setting refers to education where the pupil with SEN [special educational needs] follows education in mainstream classes alongside their mainstream peers for the largest part – 80% or more – of the school week’ (European Agency, 2016b, p. 13).

UNESCO stresses the need for a systemic, capacity-building approach to developing inclusive education systems: ‘Implementing changes effectively and monitoring them for impact, recognizing that building inclusion and equity in education is an on-going process, rather than a one-time effort’ (UNESCO, 2017, p. 13).

‘The ultimate vision for inclusive education systems is to ensure that all learners of any age are provided with meaningful, high-quality educational opportunities in their local community, alongside their friends and peers’ (European Agency, 2015a).

An inclusive system in and around schools involves:

… a focus on a supportive, quality learning environment, a welcoming and caring school and classroom climate, addressing holistic needs of students, whether emotional, physical, cognitive or social, and recognising their individual talents and voices, preventing discrimination, as well as being open to the voices and active participation of parents and wider multidisciplinary teams and agencies.

This system takes ‘a particular focus on marginalised and vulnerable groups, including those at risk of early school leaving and alienation from society’ (Downes, Nairz-Wirth and Rusinaitė, 2017, p. 79).

Inclusive pedagogy refers to ‘an approach to teaching and learning that supports teachers to respond to individual differences between learners, but avoids the marginalisation that can occur when some students are treated differently’ (Florian, 2014, p. 289).

Inclusive pedagogy is concerned with redressing the limitations on learning that are often inadvertently placed on children when they are judged ‘less able’. It does not deny differences between learners but seeks to accommodate them by extending what is ordinarily available to all rather than by differentiating for some. Here there is a shift in focus away from the idea of inclusion as a specialized response to some learners that enables them to have access or participate in that which is available to most students. Extending what is ordinarily available to all learners, taking account the fact that there will be individual differences between them is a subtle but profound difference in approaching teaching and learning for all that is the hallmark of inclusive pedagogy (Florian, 2015, p. 13).

Inclusive school leaders (or leadership teams) have the vision that ‘all learners of any age are provided with meaningful, high-quality educational opportunities in their local community, alongside their friends and peers’ (European Agency, 2015a, p. 1). Such leaders combine elements of instructional, transformative and distributed leadership models. They take responsibility for and value all learners. They work to ensure learners’ full participation and engagement by setting a clear direction, developing staff and other stakeholders and using all available evidence, experience and expertise to collaboratively create and sustain the learning community and support everyone to achieve the best possible outcomes.

Inclusive school leadership goes beyond organisation. It aims to address inequity to build community and full participation. It focuses on developing an inclusive culture where all stakeholders are supported to work together, value diversity and ensure that all learners, including those most vulnerable to exclusion, receive a high-quality education (European Agency, 2020, p. 41).

An indicator is defined as a parameter, or a value derived from a parameter, which aims to provide information about the state of a phenomenon. Indicators can provide a systemic approach to evaluation, useful for complex areas, such as education when longer-term outcomes are important and the work does not correspond to a straightforward input-output or linear model. Numbers or statistics are not necessarily required and indicators can highlight the relationship between different components. Indicators are a dynamic system with explicit values that will differ according to the cultural context and project elements.

‘Written plan setting out a student’s present performance level along with goals and objectives, as well as services and timelines to meet those goals and objectives’ (UNESCO, 2020a, p. 420).

Parents and other professionals/specialists may be involved in developing individual education plans.