Ethics is concerned with individuals and groups of people, and how attitudes, actions and decisions may influence and have intended and unintended consequences on their own lives and the lives of others. In practice, ethical approaches are clear in their purposes and processes and intend to benefit all those involved. At every stage, steps are taken to reduce power imbalances and bias and to enable all to participate safely and voluntarily (European Agency, 2022a, p. 23).

‘The act of forming an opinion of the amount, value or quality of something after thinking about it carefully’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

A systematic and objective assessment of an on-going or completed project, programme or policy, its design, implementation and results.

Evaluation focuses on the macro level, considering the context of learning and related factors. Assessment measures learning at the micro or learner level and is one element of evaluation. Evaluation should inform next steps and on-going improvement. 

An evaluation (work) plan should specify what will be evaluated, how and when, together with the evaluation design, practices, and procedures to use in conducting the evaluation.

‘The facts, signs or objects that make you believe that something is true’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

‘A discourse or set of methods which informs the policy process, rather than aiming to directly affect’ the goals of the policy (Sutcliffe and Court, 2005, p. iii).

Davies (1999) has defined evidence-based policy-making as an approach which ‘helps people make well informed decisions about policies, programmes and projects by putting the best available evidence at the heart of policy development and implementation’ (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2017, p. 6).

Evidence-based policy is public policy informed by rigorously established objective evidence. Across policy areas, the use of strong evidence to choose policy interventions, prioritise funding and implement policies/programmes enhances the likelihood of positive outcomes (Duke University, 2009).

‘The act of preventing somebody/something from entering a place or taking part in something’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

‘Any form of direct or indirect prevention of access’ (UNESCO, 2020a, p. 419).

Social exclusion occurs when people cannot fully participate or contribute to society because of ‘the denial of civil, political, social, economic and cultural rights’.

[Definitions indicate that] exclusion results from ‘a combination of linked problems such as unemployment, poor skills, low incomes, poor housing, bad health and family breakdown’.

[…] Groups, communities and individuals who because of deprivation, poverty or discrimination are unable to realise their potential and participate and contribute to society are excluded (UNESCO, no date).

External specialist provision refers to out-of-school resources in the form of external centres and institutions that support individual learners and/or empower schools and teachers.

Some countries call them ‘resource centres for inclusion’, others ‘competence centres’, ‘resource centres’ or ‘reference centres’. This type of resource may be responsible for:

• needs identification and educational planning;
• short-term or part-time support for individual learners;
• provision for training and courses for teachers and other professionals;
• support for parents;
• development and dissemination of materials and methods;
• support for transition between phases of education;
• support in entering the labour market (European Agency, 2019b, p. 24).

(See also ‘Specialist provision’)

See ‘Education finance’.

(See also ‘Funding’)

A typography used in text-editing software. A sans serif font is a font without curls or strokes at the end of each character. Times New Roman is an exception of a sans serif font.

Formal education is defined as education that is institutionalized, intentional, planned through public organizations and recognized private bodies and, in their totality, make up the formal education system of a country. Formal education programmes are thus recognized as such by the relevant national educational authorities or equivalent, e.g. any other institution in co-operation with the national or sub-national educational authorities. Formal education consists mostly of initial education. Vocational education, special needs education and some parts of adult education are often recognized as being part of the formal education system. Qualifications from formal education are by definition recognized and are therefore within the scope of ISCED [International Standard Classification of Education]. Institutionalized education occurs when an organisation provides structured educational arrangements, such as student-teacher relationships and/or interactions, that are specially designed for education and learning (UNESCO, 2011, p. 8, cited by European Agency, 2016, pp. 24–25).

How information is converted or packaged – such as text-editing programs or presentations – and delivered or presented to the user. The ending within file names usually shows the format it is saved in, such as .doc, .docx, .rtf, .xls, .csv, .jpg, .pdf, etc.

A variety of methods teachers use to evaluate learner comprehension, learning needs and academic progress during a lesson or course. Formative assessment can help teachers identify concepts that learners are struggling to understand, skills they are having difficulty acquiring or learning standards they have not yet achieved so that lessons, teaching/learning approaches and support can be adjusted.

Formative assessment aims to collect detailed information that can be used to improve teaching and learning while it is happening. What makes an assessment ‘formative’ is not the design of a test, technique or self-evaluation, per se, but the way it is used — i.e. to inform in-process teaching and learning modifications.

Formative assessment is an integral part of effective teaching. It helps learners to develop an understanding of their own strengths and development needs (adapted from ‘formative assessment’ in the Glossary of Education Reform).

Resource allocation mechanisms (financial, human, technical, etc.).

Within an educational context, public funding may come from central, regional or local sources, with variations in transfer of resources between levels and the allocations that schools receive. Degrees of autonomy also vary between system levels.

(See also ‘Education finance’)

Governance refers to how decision making happens in education systems. It refers to the institutions and dynamics through which education systems allocate roles and responsibilities, determine priorities and designs, and carry out education policies and programmes. In today’s increasingly complex social environments, many countries are working to ensure effective planning, implementation and delivery of education policies (OECD, 2019).

Governance mechanisms refer to the structures and processes that are designed to ensure the education system’s accountability, transparency and responsiveness. 

Good governance has been accepted as one of the targets of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). It is also expected to be participatory, accountable, effective and equitable and to promote the rule of law.

Grade repetition or retention refers to the traditional practice of holding learners back to repeat school years. ‘Grade repetition is costly and ineffective in raising educational outcomes’ (OECD, 2012, p. 10). ‘The extensive use of grade retention means holding pupils back to repeat school years, instead of providing flexible individual support’ (European Agency, 2018a, p. 34).

‘… in general it refers to unofficial norms, behaviours and values that teachers teach and students learn at school, or that are directly/indirectly transferred by the school culture or ethos, and which are not necessarily a product of conscious intention’.

While the ‘formal’ curriculum consists of the courses, lessons, and learning activities that learners participate in, as well as the knowledge and skills educators intentionally teach, ‘the hidden curriculum acknowledges that schooling takes place in a broad social and cultural environment that has an influence on learning’ (Adapted from UNESCO-IBE, Glossary of Curriculum Terminology).