Article 9 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities defines ‘accessibility’ as follows:

To enable persons with disabilities to live independently and participate fully in all aspects of life, States Parties shall take appropriate measures to ensure to persons with disabilities access, on an equal basis with others, to the physical environment, to transportation, to information and communications, including information and communications technologies and systems, and to other facilities and services open or provided to the public, both in urban and in rural areas (United Nations, 2006, p. 9).

Accessibility is a right to be ensured in all areas. These include education and the right to appropriate education and active citizenship through access to a flexible curriculum through personalised learning approaches.

Kemmis and McTaggart (1988, p. 5) provide the following definition of ‘action research’, which emphasises its participatory, collaborative and self-reflective nature and firmly locates it as a form of social action orientated towards improvement:

Action research is a form of collective self-reflective enquiry undertaken by participants in social situations in order to improve the rationality and justice of their own social or educational practices, as well as their understanding of these practices and the situations in which these practices are carried out.

The ‘action research’ model has been used for school improvement purposes. It is a form of professional self-study, where teachers intentionally consider their work to collect data, which they then use to make informed decisions about their practice and their learners’ learning (Campbell, 2013). 

One of the principal intentions of action/practitioner research is that teachers raise the quality of their practice by engaging in basic classroom or school-set research, addressing curriculum or other broadly pedagogical issues (Institute of Public Administration/European Commission Structural Reform Support Service, 2017).

Learners, often from an immigrant background, who do not speak the national language and who need additional support to access the curriculum in school and develop resources to fully participate in the life of the local and wider community.

‘Process of defining, selecting, designing, collecting, analysing, interpreting and using information about a student’s achievement and development level in academic, behavioural or social areas’ (UNESCO, 2020a, p. 419).

Assessment adaptation / modification / accommodation refers to an alteration in the way a general assessment is done or test is applied. Assessment accommodation allows learners with special educational needs to show what they know or what they can do by removing the barriers that may be intrinsic in the assessment itself (for example, providing written test questions orally to learners with visual impairments).

(See also ‘Reasonable adjustments’)

Assessment of learner’s progress and achievement, the primary purpose of which is to support and enhance learning by adapting the educational process to meet the learner’s needs. Learners are made aware of their strengths and weaknesses while being provided with adequate support to overcome learning difficulties (UNESCO-IBE, Glossary of Curriculum Terminology).

(See also ‘Formative assessment’)

Equipment, devices, apparatuses, services, systems, processes and environmental modifications used by people with disabilities to overcome social, infrastructural and other barriers to learning independence, safe and easy participation in learning activities, and full participation in society (UNESCO, 2020a, p. 419).

‘Enabling technologies’ is another term for ‘assistive technologies’. However, these focus more on creating opportunity than overcoming a deficit.

Children can be at risk of disadvantage because of their individual circumstances or because they, or their families belong to a group which is disadvantaged in society. These children may include those with disabilities, with mental health problems, in alternative care, at risk of neglect/abuse, undocumented child migrants/asylum seekers, those whose families live in poverty or are socially disadvantaged, those whose families have a migrant and/or second language background, those whose families have limited access to services, Roma and traveller children (European Commission, 2018a).

Awareness raising campaigns can be defined as organised communication activities which aim to create awareness on particular topics (health, environment, education), behavioural change among the general population and to improve the focus on better outcomes (better health, greater environmental protection, reduced early school leaving). They often take the form of mass media campaigns.

Messages can be conveyed through many different channels, such as mass media (television, radio), social media, public relations, events, talks, demonstrations, tours and leaflets.

Awareness raising campaigns are recognised as the most efficient and effective means of communicating information especially to the general public. Still, not all of them are effective in terms of influencing people’s beliefs and changing their behaviour (Masiulienė, Looney, Aertgeerts and de Greef, no date, p. 4).
 

A barrier is ‘a problem, rule or situation that prevents somebody from doing something, or that makes something impossible’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

Disability is often considered to be due to ‘disabling barriers’. These can be addressed by designing enabling, accessible environments.

In education – and during the learning process – there may be many barriers or circumstances that restrict the full participation of learners. Many learners will have different requirements (short and longer term) that may require consideration to enable them to take part in all activities and gain full benefit from the opportunities on offer.

Full and active participation may be affected by negative attitudes and deficit thinking, physical barriers, poor access to communication aids and appropriate information in accessible formats or a lack of confidence and/or training in the skills necessary to take part (European Agency, no date b).

‘Something that can be measured and used as a standard that other things can be compared with’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

‘A systematic process of comparing the activities, processes and/or performance of a programme, organization, country, learner, etc. against a theoretical, political or existing reference with the aim of identifying ways to improve performance’ (CEDEFOP (2011) in UNESCO-IBE, Glossary of Curriculum Terminology).

Capacity building refers to the process of developing and strengthening mainstream schools’ capacity to meet all learners’ needs, rather than distributing additional resources for learners with additional support needs. This process involves increasing the knowledge and skills of all education professionals (i.e. leaders, teachers and specialist staff) and enhancing collaborative practices within schools and across local communities. The ultimate aim is to transform teaching and learning and improve learner outcomes.

Co-teaching or team teaching, also known as collaborative teaching, is a teaching practice to address the diversity of learners and needs in the classroom. It takes place when two (or more) educators work together to plan, organise, instruct and make assessments on the same groups of learners, sharing the same classroom.

In a co-teaching setting, the teachers are considered equally responsible and accountable for the classroom. Co-teaching is often implemented with general and special education teachers paired together as part of an initiative to create a more inclusive classroom.

Working together may include: one teach, one observe; one teach, one assist; station teaching, parallel teaching, alternate teaching; team teaching.

(For more information on these, see Understood, no date).

Opposed to individual learning, collaborative learning develops a community-centred approach. It is a recent trend in human learning and cognition that emphasises participation, joint meaning-making, discourse and dialogue. It is characterised by collaboration, creative processes and the use of new technology.

Compensatory approaches or policy initiatives are those that ‘address the inability of legislation and/or provision to support meaningful inclusive education for all learners (for example, separate educational programmes or provision, support for failing schools, second-chance educational programmes)’ (European Agency, 2018, p. 19).

In most European education systems, compulsory education/training starts at the beginning of primary education (ISCED 1), usually at the age of 6. In 15 education systems, attendance at last year(s) of pre-primary education, usually at the age of 5, is already compulsory. […] In most European education systems, full-time compulsory education/training lasts 9–10 years ending at the age of 15–16 (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2016, p. 3)

‘The act of discovering or identifying the exact cause of an illness or problem’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

Diagnosis is one particular use or purpose of assessment information. It aims to identify particular strengths and weaknesses a learner may have in one or more areas of their functioning. Diagnosis often implies the collection and interpretation of information from a medical perspective, although educational ‘diagnosis’ also occurs. Diagnosis is often one aspect of assessment processes linked to initial identification of special educational needs.

Differentiation is a method of designing and delivering instruction to best reach each learner. Teachers might differentiate content, process, products and/or the learning environment, with the use of on-going assessment and flexible grouping (Tomlinson, 2014). Differentiation in teachers’ practices takes account of learner differences and matches curriculum content and teaching methods to learning styles and learner needs. It may focus on input, task, outcome, output, response, resources or support. Care must be taken, however, that differentiation does not lead to lower expectations and segregation from the mainstream system. It should offer a range of differentiated tasks to everyone in class, giving learners some choice in what they do and how they respond.

‘The practice of treating somebody or a particular group in society less fairly than others’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

Legislation is in place in many countries to ensure the right of individuals to be treated equally, for example in education and employment.

This firstly involves the devolution of responsibilities to middle leadership teams that are able to support and manage the transfer of knowledge and skills when necessary. Secondly, it enables all staff and school stakeholders to take responsibility by promoting flexibility and sharing practice. Thus, this leadership model involves the interactions between those in formal and informal leadership roles much more than the actions they perform. The main concern is how leadership influences organisational and instructional improvement (European Agency, 2020, p. 39).

A multi-faceted concept that can contain many elements and levels of distinction, e.g. age, ethnicity, class, gender, physical abilities, race, sexual orientation, religious status, educational background, geographical location, income, marital status, parental status and work experiences. The OECD defines diversity as: ‘characteristics that can affect the specific ways in which developmental potential and learning are realised, including cultural, linguistic, ethnic, religious and socio-economic differences’ (2010, p. 21).

Diversity refers to the cultural, linguistic, ethnic, developmental and other aspects of human difference that represent some of the many elements of identity that characterise both individuals and groups and account for differences between people (Florian and Pantić, 2017).

‘Early childhood education and care’ or ‘early childhood care and education’ (ECEC, or ECCE as termed by UNESCO) refer to:

‘Provision for children from birth through to primary education that falls within a national regulatory framework, i.e., it has to comply with a set of rules, minimum standards and/or undergo accreditation procedures’ (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice/Eurostat, 2014, p. 155).

ECI is a composite of services/provision for very young children and their families. It is provided at their request at a certain time in a child’s life. It covers any action undertaken when a child needs special support to ensure and enhance their personal development, strengthen the family’s own competences, and promote the social inclusion of the family and the child. Different elements that are relevant to ECI are: availability (a shared aim of ECI is to reach all children and families in need of support as early as possible); proximity (the idea of providing family-focused services); affordability (services are offered free of charge or at minimal cost to families); interdisciplinary working (professionals in charge of direct support to young children and their families belong to different disciplines (professions) and consequently have diverse backgrounds according to the service they are related to); and diversity of services (e.g. the involvement of different services – health, social services and education). (Refer to: European Agency, 2010).

The result of processes that run through a learner’s life and education up to the point of leaving school. It might refer to the phenomenon of:

• ‘leaving school before the end of compulsory education’ – a point which varies from country to country (formal definition) and/or
• ‘leaving school without adequate skills, knowledge or qualifications to deal with adult life and employment’ (functional definition).

Early school leaving ‘should be seen as closely related to other forms of limitation in educational opportunities, participation and achievement. In many cases, it stems from underlying social disadvantage’ (European Agency, 2016a, pp. 5–6).

‘Drop-out’ is often used as a synonym or as an outcome for early school leaving.

A coherent set or sequence of educational activities designed and organized to achieve pre-determined learning objectives or accomplish a specific set of educational tasks over a sustained period. Within an education programme, educational activities may also be grouped into sub-components variously described in national contexts as ‘courses’, ‘modules’, ‘units’ and/or ‘subjects’. A programme may have major components not normally characterised as courses, units or modules – for example, play-based activities, periods of work experience, research projects and the preparation of dissertations (UNESCO/UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2012, p. 79).

Equal opportunities mean the ‘same chances to take part in activities, access services, etc. with no barriers to education and equal life prospects for individuals’ (UNESCO IITE/European Agency, 2011, p. 102). Equal access to learning, achievement and citizenship opportunities allows learners to have similar achievements to their peers. This is particularly made possible through inclusive education (Soriano, Watkins and Ebersold, 2017).

‘A state of affairs or result whereby all members of a group enjoy the same inputs, outputs or outcomes in terms of status, rights and responsibilities’ (UNESCO, 2020a, p. 419).

‘Ensuring that there is a concern with fairness, such that the education of all learners is seen as being of equal importance’ (UNESCO, 2017, p. 7).

The OECD, in the publication No More Failures: Ten Steps to Equity in Education (2007), highlighted two dimensions of equity in education – fairness, ‘which implies ensuring that personal and social circumstances […] should not be an obstacle to achieving educational potential’, and inclusion, which implies ‘ensuring a basic minimum standard of education for all’. Fair and inclusive education is one of the most powerful levers available to make society more equitable.

According to the Council of the European Union:

… equality and equity are not identical and […] education systems must move away from the traditional ‘one-size-fits all’ mentality. Equal opportunities for all are crucial, but not sufficient: there is a need to pursue ‘equity’ in the aims, content, teaching methods and forms of learning being provided for by education and training systems to achieve a high quality education for all (2017, p. 4).

‘The act of preventing somebody/something from entering a place or taking part in something’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

‘Any form of direct or indirect prevention of access’ (UNESCO, 2020a, p. 419).

Social exclusion occurs when people cannot fully participate or contribute to society because of ‘the denial of civil, political, social, economic and cultural rights’.

[Definitions indicate that] exclusion results from ‘a combination of linked problems such as unemployment, poor skills, low incomes, poor housing, bad health and family breakdown’.

[…] Groups, communities and individuals who because of deprivation, poverty or discrimination are unable to realise their potential and participate and contribute to society are excluded (UNESCO, no date).

A variety of methods teachers use to evaluate learner comprehension, learning needs and academic progress during a lesson or course. Formative assessment can help teachers identify concepts that learners are struggling to understand, skills they are having difficulty acquiring or learning standards they have not yet achieved so that lessons, teaching/learning approaches and support can be adjusted.

Formative assessment aims to collect detailed information that can be used to improve teaching and learning while it is happening. What makes an assessment ‘formative’ is not the design of a test, technique or self-evaluation, per se, but the way it is used — i.e. to inform in-process teaching and learning modifications.

Formative assessment is an integral part of effective teaching. It helps learners to develop an understanding of their own strengths and development needs (adapted from ‘formative assessment’ in the Glossary of Education Reform).

There is no universally agreed definition, as identification of this group of learners is linked to context. In every school, there is likely to be learners who require extended educational opportunities.

High ability/giftedness is currently defined in terms of the following traits:

— above-average intellectual ability, with regard to both general and specific skills. Although the traditional yardstick has been the presence of an intelligence quotient of over 130 (100 being the average), in recent years this criterion has been extended and loosened to include the assessment of other equally important indicators:

— high dedication and commitment to tasks: perseverance, interest, resilience, self-confidence, etc.

— high levels of creativity, flexibility and originality in asking questions, responding to and solving problems and difficulties that arise (European Economic and Social Committee, 2013).

(See also ‘Talented’)

Inclusion is both a principle and a process: ‘Inclusion and equity in and through education is the cornerstone of a transformative education agenda […] No education target should be considered met unless met by all’ (World Education Forum, 2015, p. 2).

It can be seen as: ‘A process consisting of actions and practices that embrace diversity and build a sense of belonging, rooted in the belief that every person has value and potential and should be respected’ (UNESCO, 2020a, p. 419).

The term was often associated with disability, but now extends to wider groups as ‘a response to increasingly complex and diverse societies. It treats diversity as an asset which helps prepare individuals for life and active citizenship in increasingly complex, demanding, multi-cultural and integrated societies’ (Soriano, Watkins and Ebersold, 2017, p. 7).

Inclusive assessment refers to assessment that ‘takes into account the needs of all learners, ensuring that they all take part in the assessment procedures and that the learning activities planned as a result are appropriate to each individual’ (Kefallinou and Donnelly, 2016, p. 210). Inclusive assessment is not a new or different set of techniques, but a different way of using assessment to support teaching and learning for all learners.

(See also ‘Universal design for learning’)

Curriculum which takes into consideration and caters for the diverse needs, previous experiences, interests and personal characteristics of all learners. It attempts to ensure that all students are part of the shared learning experiences of the classroom and that equal opportunities are provided regardless of learner differences (UNESCO-IBE, Glossary of Curriculum Terminology).

‘An education that promotes mutual respect and value for all persons and builds educational environments in which the approach to learning, the institutional culture and the curriculum reflect the value of diversity’ (UNESCO, 2020a, p. 420).

The Agency views inclusive education as ‘a systemic approach to providing high quality education in mainstream schools that effectively meets the academic and social learning needs of all the learners from the school’s local community’ (European Agency, 2015, p. 2).

Inclusive education supposes a real change at both policy and practice levels regarding education. Learners are placed at the centre of a system that needs to be able to recognise, accept and respond to learner diversity. Inclusive education aims to respond to the principles of efficiency, equality and equity, where diversity is perceived as an asset. Learners also need to be prepared to engage in society, to access meaningful citizenship and to acknowledge the values of human rights, freedom, tolerance and non-discrimination (Soriano, Watkins and Ebersold, 2017, p. 6).

‘An inclusive setting refers to education where the pupil with SEN [special educational needs] follows education in mainstream classes alongside their mainstream peers for the largest part – 80% or more – of the school week’ (European Agency, 2016b, p. 13).

UNESCO stresses the need for a systemic, capacity-building approach to developing inclusive education systems: ‘Implementing changes effectively and monitoring them for impact, recognizing that building inclusion and equity in education is an on-going process, rather than a one-time effort’ (UNESCO, 2017, p. 13).

‘The ultimate vision for inclusive education systems is to ensure that all learners of any age are provided with meaningful, high-quality educational opportunities in their local community, alongside their friends and peers’ (European Agency, 2015a).

An inclusive system in and around schools involves:

… a focus on a supportive, quality learning environment, a welcoming and caring school and classroom climate, addressing holistic needs of students, whether emotional, physical, cognitive or social, and recognising their individual talents and voices, preventing discrimination, as well as being open to the voices and active participation of parents and wider multidisciplinary teams and agencies.

This system takes ‘a particular focus on marginalised and vulnerable groups, including those at risk of early school leaving and alienation from society’ (Downes, Nairz-Wirth and Rusinaitė, 2017, p. 79).

Inclusive pedagogy refers to ‘an approach to teaching and learning that supports teachers to respond to individual differences between learners, but avoids the marginalisation that can occur when some students are treated differently’ (Florian, 2014, p. 289).

Inclusive pedagogy is concerned with redressing the limitations on learning that are often inadvertently placed on children when they are judged ‘less able’. It does not deny differences between learners but seeks to accommodate them by extending what is ordinarily available to all rather than by differentiating for some. Here there is a shift in focus away from the idea of inclusion as a specialized response to some learners that enables them to have access or participate in that which is available to most students. Extending what is ordinarily available to all learners, taking account the fact that there will be individual differences between them is a subtle but profound difference in approaching teaching and learning for all that is the hallmark of inclusive pedagogy (Florian, 2015, p. 13).

‘Written plan setting out a student’s present performance level along with goals and objectives, as well as services and timelines to meet those goals and objectives’ (UNESCO, 2020a, p. 420).

Parents and other professionals/specialists may be involved in developing individual education plans.

‘The act of making something different to suit the needs of a particular person, place, etc.’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

Individualisation is led by the teacher, who provides instruction and tasks/activities to accommodate the learning needs of each learner. This can include the use of digital technology. The teacher should ensure that there is sufficient time to interact with learners and also involve them in managing their own learning, moving towards a more personalised approach. (See definition of ‘Personalisation’). Care should be taken to ensure that individual tasks do not increase segregation.

Individualised forms of support may be provided in mainstream groups or classes for learners who have special needs, including learners with disabilities, to enable them to participate in learning opportunities with their peers.

Initial identification refers to the recognition/detection of possible barriers to learning. This recognition should lead to the systematic collection of information that can be used to develop a profile of strengths and areas for development that can inform approaches to teaching and learning and support. Initial identification of additional learning/support needs may be linked to other assessment procedures. It may involve professionals outside of the mainstream school (including health professionals). In most countries, separate legislation directly governs the procedures for initial identification of additional support needs.

This is generally linked to the placement of learners in mainstream schools. It carries with it an idea that learners need to be educationally and/or socially ‘ready’ for transfer from specialist provision to mainstream schools. The expectation is that learners will adapt to the school, rather than the school changing to accommodate the learners and meet a wider range of diverse needs.

(See also ‘Partial integration’)

‘Learners with additional support needs’ refers to learners from pre-primary up to higher education and lifelong learning who experience barriers to learning resulting from learner-environment interaction.

Good quality learning and teaching will meet a range of diverse needs without additional support. However, some learners will need additional support, different resources or adapted pedagogical approaches to ensure they gain the most benefit from their education.

There are many reasons why learners may need additional support (either short- or long-term) to help them learn. Such needs may be due to:

• disability or health;
• learning environment;
• family circumstances;
• social and emotional factors.

Lesson study is a Japanese model of teacher-led research, in which a triad of teachers work together to target an identified area for development in their pupils’ learning. Using existing evidence, participants collaboratively research, plan, teach and observe a series of lessons, using on-going discussion, reflection and expert input to track and refine their interventions (Teacher Development Trust Network, no date).

Lifelong learning encompasses all learning activities undertaken throughout life with the aim of improving knowledge, skills and competences, within personal, civic, social or employment-related perspectives. The intention or aim to learn is the critical point that distinguishes these activities from non-learning activities, such as cultural or sporting activities (‘Lifelong learning’ in Eurostat, no date a).

Lifelong learning must cover learning from the pre-school age to that of post-retirement, including the entire spectrum of formal, non-formal and informal learning. … the principles in this context should be: the individual as the subject of learning, highlighting the importance of an authentic equality of opportunities, and quality in learning (Council of the European Union, 2002).

‘The process or result of making somebody feel as if they are not important and cannot influence decisions or events; the fact of putting somebody in a position in which they have no power’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

Barely provided for or able to access services or participate in society. Generally understood as a social process by which vulnerable groups are moved out of the mainstream to a powerless position in society.

‘Watching, checking something over a period of time to see how it develops, so that necessary changes can be made’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

The process of systematically tracking aspects of education/school ‘implementation, with a view toward data collection, accountability and/or enhancing effectiveness and/or quality’ (OECD, 2015, p. 235).

A monitoring framework should be designed to monitor quality at different levels (country, region, schools) and for different groups (school authorities, teachers, learners). It should ‘draw on a number of different tools and components to collect and organize data needed to monitor a system’s performance’. This includes tools at the school level for data on learners and teachers, ‘national education management information systems (EMIS), human resource or teacher management information systems for teacher recruitment and deployment, inspection and appraisal systems, and financial management systems’. The framework may also include system-level learner evaluations.

Monitoring may include compliance monitoring, diagnostic monitoring and performance monitoring, which may all co-exist within the system (UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning, 2021).

An official decision leads to a child/learner being recognised as eligible for additional educational support to meet their learning needs.

An official decision meets the following criteria:

• There has been some form of educational assessment procedure involving different people. This procedure may involve the child/learner, parents, school-based team members, as well as professionals from multi-disciplinary teams from outside the child/learner’s (pre-)school.
• There is some form of legal document (plan/programme, etc.) that describes the support the child/learner is eligible to receive, which is used as the basis for decision-making.
• There is some form of regular review process of the child/learner’s needs, progress and support (European Agency, 2021a, p. 8).

UNICEF describes participation as:

… an ongoing process of children’s expression and active involvement in decision-making at different levels in matters that concern them, requiring information-sharing and dialogue between children/adolescents and adults based on mutual respect, and … [requiring] that full consideration of their views be given, taking into account the child’s age and maturity (2013, p. 7).

Like educational inclusion, participation is often seen as a human rights issue and an essential component of social justice (European Agency, 2011).

Participation is about the quality of the learning experience from a learner perspective, and therefore it must incorporate the views of the learners themselves. … It relates to school-level process factors which facilitate or hinder a sense of belonging and a sense of autonomy to the learner, as well as a sense of a meaningful participation with peers of the same age. As such, participation mainly refers to processes at the meso (school or classroom) and micro (individual learner) levels (Ramberg and Watkins, 2020, p. 90).

(See also ‘Meaningful participation’)

A process of tailoring education to a learner’s current situation, characteristics and needs to help achieve the best possible progress and outcomes. Personalised learning can include personalising the curriculum, courses, learning materials and activities, and different forms of learning support. Each learner is provided with education that is tailored to their individual characteristics and needs. They learn in a way that is most suitable for them, resulting in different learning experiences for each learner (Adapted from Seel, 2012 in UNESCO-IBE, Glossary of Curriculum Terminology).

Personalisation involves working closely with parents and families to address any support requirements holistically. Personalisation is not ‘individualisation of learning’, which is essentially a teacher-driven action. Learner participation and involvement in decision-making is crucial to distinguishing between the two approaches. Personalisation requires learners to reflect in an interactive process – co-creating learning with the teacher but, over time, taking increasing responsibility and managing their own learning (within the framework of the country’s curriculum and standards) (European Agency, 2012b).

Professional learning refers to any activity undertaken by education professionals that aims to stimulate their thinking and professional knowledge and to improve their practice, ensuring that it is evidence-informed and up-to-date. Professional learning includes activities that take place throughout an individual’s professional career.

(See also ‘Teacher professional learning’)

A professional learning community refers to collaborations of education stakeholders ‘around clusters of schools involving …. school and community personnel, together with researchers, local area leaders and policy-makers’ (European Agency, 2015e, p. 7).

Professional learning communities may serve two broad purposes:

(1) improving the skills and knowledge of educators through collaborative study, expertise exchange, and professional dialogue, and (2) improving the educational aspirations, achievement, and attainment of students through stronger leadership and teaching. Professional learning communities often function as a form of action research—i.e., as a way to continually question, reevaluate, refine, and improve teaching strategies and knowledge (‘professional learning community’ in the Glossary of Education Reform).

(See also ‘Learning community’)

The term ‘provision’ includes all forms of support that may help the process of participation in education for all learners: curriculum, assessment procedures, forms of pedagogy, organisation and management and resources that contribute to the development of supportive systems that promote inclusive education.

‘The practice of managing the way goods are produced or services are provided to make sure they are kept at a high standard’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries).

Quality assurance refers to the ‘policies, procedures and practices designed to achieve, maintain and enhance quality in inclusive education’. It also involves ‘how educational organisations account for their activities, accept responsibility for them and share information on their results openly and transparently’ (European Agency, 2018e, p. 17).

Quality education:

a. gives access to learning to all pupils and students, particularly those in vulnerable or disadvantaged groups, adapted to their needs as appropriate;

b. provides a secure and non-violent learning environment in which the rights of all are respected;

c. develops each pupil’s and student’s personality, talents and mental and physical abilities to their fullest potential and encourages them to complete the educational programmes in which they enrol;

d. promotes democracy, respect for human rights and social justice in a learning environment which recognises everyone’s learning and social needs;

e. enables pupils and students to develop appropriate competences, self-confidence and critical thinking to help them become responsible citizens and improve their employability;

f. passes on universal and local cultural values to pupils and students while equipping them also to make their own decisions;

g. certifies outcomes of formal and non-formal learning in a transparent way based on fair assessment enabling acquired knowledge and competences to be recognised for further study, employment and other purposes;

h. relies on qualified teachers who are committed to continuous professional development;

i. is free of corruption (Council of Europe Committee of Ministers, 2012).

Reasonable adjustments are a way to remove barriers to education. Schools adjust policies and practices in education and associated services for learners with disabilities. The duty applies to all staff and is anticipatory (not compensatory). This means that adjustments are in place before learners with particular requirements are present in school. It recognises each learner’s right to attend and the need to remove barriers to participation and learning.

Resource centres are core educational centres and/or institutions dedicated to providing support and consultancy to promote inclusion. A resource centre is a transformed special school, which redefines itself as a dynamic, multi-functional space that brings together both human and material resources. The transformation requires stakeholders from special settings to act as consultants for mainstream settings, providing schools with their knowledge and accumulated experience. It mobilises the knowledge and skills of the school for inclusion, valuing the knowledge and experiences of all (European Agency, 2019b).

A preliminary process for identifying learners who may be at risk of future difficulty in a particular area and who therefore may be a priority for intervention. Screening is intended for all learners and so the measures/tests used are usually inexpensive, quick and easy to administer, and easy to interpret. Screening is often the first step to further, more detailed assessment (diagnostic tests, etc.).

A process which ensures that those at risk of poverty and social exclusion gain the opportunities and resources necessary to participate fully in economic, social and cultural life and to enjoy a standard of living and well-being that is considered normal in the society in which they live. Social inclusion also ensures that vulnerable groups and persons have greater participation in decision making which affects their lives and access to their fundamental rights (European Union, 2019, p. 9).

In every country, some groups confront barriers that prevent them from fully participating in political, economic, and social life. These groups may be excluded not only through legal systems, land, and labor markets, but also discriminatory or stigmatizing attitudes, beliefs, or perceptions. Disadvantage is often based on social identity, which may be across dimensions of gender, age, location, occupation, race, ethnicity, religion, citizenship status, disability, and sexual orientation and gender identity (SOGI), among other factors. This kind of social exclusion robs individuals of dignity, security, and the opportunity to lead a better life. Unless the root causes of structural exclusion and discrimination are addressed, it will be challenging to support sustainable inclusive growth and rapid poverty reduction (World Bank, no date).

SEN is a construct that countries usually define within their legislation. These definitions are then used to identify, assess and make provision for learners with different needs – including recognised disabilities – in different ways (Watkins, Ebersold and Lénárt, 2014). Special or ‘additional’ needs should not be seen as the result of ‘in-child’ factors, but rather ‘a discrepancy between what a system of schooling ordinarily provides and what the child needs to support their learning’ (Rouse, 2008, p. 6, cited by Soriano, Watkins and Ebersold, 2017, p. 22).

(See also ‘Official decision / statement of special educational needs (SEN)’)

The International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) defines special needs education as:

Education designed to facilitate learning by individuals who, for a wide variety of reasons, require additional support and adaptive pedagogical methods in order to participate and meet learning objectives in an education programme. Reasons may include (but are not limited to) disadvantages in physical, behavioural, intellectual, emotional and social capacities. Education programmes in special needs education may follow a similar curriculum as that offered in the parallel regular education system, but they take individual needs into account by providing specific resources (e.g. specially-trained personnel, equipment or space) and, if appropriate, modified educational content or learning objectives. These programmes can be offered to individual students within already-existing education programmes or as a separate class in the same or separate educational institutions (UNESCO/UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2012, p. 83).

Specialist / multi-disciplinary assessment teams are teams of professionals from different specialisms (educational, psychological, social, health, etc.). They assess a learner in different ways and then contribute to a broader, multi-disciplinary assessment information that will inform decisions about their future learning.

Specially-trained personnel who work for the identification/assessment, education and effective care of learners with additional support needs. These may include the following professionals: special education co‑ordinators, special educators (special education teachers), learning support assistants (teaching assistants), educational psychologists, occupational therapists, speech and language therapists (speech pathologists), school assistants (care assistants/school escorts), social workers, etc.

Standardised assessment is the collection of quantifiable information about a pupil’s achievement that relates to a fixed test with a scale of possible scores. The test and scoring scales are standardised by trialling them with a large number of pupils so they are reliable (i.e. will produce the same results consistently over time) and valid (i.e. measure what they are supposed to).

‘Systems of support’ refers to systems that build the capacity of mainstream schools, rather than to the process of distributing additional resources. They help to make mainstream schools more accessible and capable of meeting the requirements of all learners.

The terms of reference is ‘the document that details the assignment and spells out the requirements and expectations of those commissioning or managing the evaluation’ (World Bank Group, 2015, p. 20).

Carrying out an assessment exercise designed to measure the learner’s acquired knowledge and skills. Tests may be set and marked by the teacher or by an external agency. (Adapted from UNESCO-IBE, Glossary of Curriculum Terminology).

(See also ‘Summative assessment’; ‘Standardised assessment’)

A theory of action is ‘focused on a specific pathway and an organization’s role in achieving a particular change’. It maps out ‘in a logical order’ what stakeholders ‘think needs to happen’ to achieve ‘long-term, sustainable change in communities’ (Borgman-Arboleda, 2013, p. 1).

‘A guiding framework for all stages of thinking, action and sense-making’ when intervening intentionally in social change processes (van Es, Guijt and Vogel, 2015, p. 12).

Theory of change is both a process and an output (Vogel, 2012): the process of working out the theory, often in group sessions led by a capable facilitator (thinking and doing theory of change analysis), and the output of that process (a document of how and why a goal will be reached).This differs from change theory, which is: ‘Theoretical and empirically grounded knowledge about how change occurs that goes beyond’ one project (Reinholz and Andrews, 2020, p. 1).

The CRPD and its Optional Protocol were adopted on 13 December 2006 and entered into force on 3 May 2008. The CRPD marks a ‘paradigm shift’ in attitudes and approaches to persons with disabilities, viewing people with disabilities as ‘subjects’ with rights, who are capable of claiming those rights and making decisions for their lives based on their free and informed consent as well as being active members of society. It also represents a paradigm shift from a ‘medical’ model, which views the impairments as the problem, towards a ‘social’ model, which perceives the problem as the barriers which have been constructed by societies.

‘Design of products, environments, programmes and services to be usable by all to the greatest extent possible, with no need for adaptation or specialised design’ (UNESCO, 2020a, p. 420).

The Center for Universal Design at North Carolina State University conceived and developed the seven principles of Universal Design: equitable use, flexibility in use, simple and intuitive use, perceptible information, tolerance for error, low physical effort, and size and space for approach and use. It is copyrighted material (The Center for Universal Design, 1997).

This stems from the general term ‘universal design’. However, it focuses on improving and optimising teaching and learning for all to ensure learners’ success and well-being. The Centre for Applied Special Technology owns the copyright for the term and the three principles for curriculum development based on a UDL approach:

1. Provide information through multiple means of representation (present information and content in different ways)
2. Provide multiple means of action and expression (differentiate the ways that learners can express what they know)
3. Provide multiple means of engagement (stimulate interest and motivation for learning).

UDL provides a blueprint for creating instructional goals, methods, materials and assessments that work for everyone. It does not involve a single, one-size-fits-all solution, but rather flexible approaches that can be customised and adjusted to individual needs. (Refer to Centre for Applied Special Technology, no date).

Universal Design for Learning is an approach to addressing the diversity of learner needs by suggesting flexible goals, methods, materials, and assessment processes that support educators to meet varied needs. Curricula created using UDL are designed from the outset to meet the needs of all learners. A UDL framework incorporates flexible design of learning situations with customizable options, which allow all learners to progress from their own, individual starting points. (Refer to Centre for Applied Special Technology, no date).